Editing Scientific Revolution (section)

=== Physical ===

==== Optics ====
[[File:Kepler - Ad Vitellionem paralipomena quibus astronomiae pars optica traditur, 1604 - 158093 F.jpg|199px|thumb|right|The first treatise about optics by [[Johannes Kepler]], ''Ad Vitellionem paralipomena quibus astronomiae pars optica traditur'' (1604)]][[File:Opticks.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Isaac Newton]]'s 1704 ''[[Opticks|Opticks: or, A Treatise of the Reflexions, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light]]'']]
In 1604 Johannes Kepler published ''Astronomiae Pars Optica'' (''The Optical Part of Astronomy''). In it, he describes the inverse-square law governing the intensity of [[light]], reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of [[pinhole camera]]s, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as [[parallax]] and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. ''Astronomiae Pars Optica'' is generally recognized as the foundation of modern [[optics]].<ref>Caspar, Max (1993) ''Kepler''. Courier Corporation. {{ISBN|0-486-67605-6}}. pp. 142–46</ref>

[[Willebrord Snellius]] found the mathematical law of [[refraction]], now known as [[Snell's law]], in 1621. It had been published earlier in 984 AD by [[Ibn Sahl (mathematician)|Ibn Sahl]]. Subsequently René Descartes showed, by using geometric construction and the law of refraction (also known as Descartes' law), that the angular radius of a rainbow is 42° (i.e. the angle subtended at the eye by the edge of the rainbow and the rainbow's centre is 42°).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tipler|first=P.A. and G. Mosca|year=2004|title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers|publisher=W.H. Freeman|isbn=978-0-7167-4389-7|page= 1068}}</ref> He also independently discovered the [[Specular reflection|law of reflection]], and his essay on optics was the first published mention of this law. [[Christiaan Huygens]] wrote several works in the area of optics. These included the ''Opera reliqua'' (also known as ''Christiani Hugenii Zuilichemii, dum viveret Zelhemii toparchae, opuscula posthuma'') and the ''[[Traité de la lumière]]''.

Newton investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a [[Dispersive prism|prism]] could decompose white light into a [[Visible spectrum|spectrum]] of colours, and that a [[lens]] and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light. He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as [[Early life of Isaac Newton#Newton's theory of colour|Newton's theory of colour]]. From this work he concluded that any refracting [[telescope]] would suffer from the [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] of light into colours. The interest of the Royal Society encouraged him to publish his notes ''On Colour''. Newton argued that light is composed of particles or ''corpuscles'' and that are refracted by accelerating toward the denser medium, but he had to associate them with [[wave]]s to explain the [[diffraction]] of light.

In his ''Hypothesis of Light'' of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the [[luminiferous aether|ether]] to transmit forces between particles. In 1704, Newton published ''[[Opticks]]'', in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"<ref>{{Citation |last=Dobbs |first=J.T. |date=December 1982 |title=Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter |journal=Isis |volume=73 |issue=4 |pages=523 |doi=10.1086/353114|s2cid=170669199 }} quoting ''Opticks''</ref>

[[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]] constructed powerful single lens microscopes and made extensive observations that he published around 1660, paving the way for the science of microbiology.

==== Electricity ====
[[File:Guericke Sulfur globe.jpg|thumb|right|[[Otto von Guericke]]'s experiments on [[electrostatics]], published 1672]]

William Gilbert, in ''De Magnete'', invented the [[Neo-Latin]] word ''electricus'' from ''{{lang|grc|ἤλεκτρον}}'' (''elektron''), the Greek word for "amber". Gilbert undertook a number of careful electrical experiments, in the course of which he discovered that many substances other than amber, such as sulphur, wax, glass, etc.,<ref name=pr>Priestley, Joseph (1757) ''History of Electricity''. London</ref> were capable of manifesting electrical properties. Gilbert discovered that a heated body lost its electricity and that moisture prevented the [[electrification]] of all bodies. He noticed that electrified substances attracted all other substances indiscriminately, whereas a magnet only attracted iron. The many discoveries of this nature earned Gilbert the title ''founder of the electrical science''.<ref name="EncyclopediaAmericana">Maver, William, Jr.: "Electricity, its History and Progress", [https://archive.org/stream/encyclopediaame21unkngoog#page/n210/mode/1up The Encyclopedia Americana; a library of universal knowledge, vol. X, pp.&nbsp;172ff]. (1918). New York: Encyclopedia Americana Corp.</ref> By investigating the forces on a light metallic needle, balanced on a point, he extended the list of electric bodies and found that many substances, including metals and natural magnets, showed no attractive forces when rubbed. He noticed that dry weather with north or east wind was the most favourable atmospheric condition for exhibiting electric phenomena—an observation liable to misconception until the difference between [[Electrical conductor|conductor]] and [[Insulator (electricity)|insulator]] was understood.<ref name="Dampier, W. C. D.">Dampier, W.C.D. (1905). The theory of experimental electricity. Cambridge physical series. Cambridge [Eng.: University Press.</ref>

Robert Boyle worked frequently at the new science of electricity and added several substances to Gilbert's list of electrics. He left a detailed account of his researches under the title of ''Experiments on the Origin of Electricity''.<ref name="Dampier, W. C. D." /> In 1675 Boyle stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum. One of his important discoveries was that electrified bodies in a vacuum would attract light substances, this indicating that the electrical effect did not depend upon the air as a medium.<ref name=pr/><ref name="EncyclopediaAmericana" /><ref>Benjamin, P. (1895). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hkMPAAAAMAAJ A history of electricity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208081359/https://books.google.com/books?id=hkMPAAAAMAAJ |date=8 December 2022 }}: (The intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin. New York: J. Wiley & Sons.</ref><ref>Boyle, Robert (1676). ''Experiments and notes about the mechanical origin or production of particular qualities''.</ref><ref>Boyle, Robert (1675) ''Experiments on the Origin of Electricity''</ref>

This was followed in 1660 by [[Otto von Guericke]], who invented an early [[electrostatic generator]]. By the end of the 17th century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction with an electrostatic generator, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century when they became fundamental instruments in the studies about the science of electricity. The first usage of the word ''electricity'' is ascribed to [[Thomas Browne]] in his 1646 work ''[[Pseudodoxia Epidemica]]''. In 1729 [[Stephen Gray (scientist)|Stephen Gray]] demonstrated that electricity could be "transmitted" through metal filaments.<ref>{{cite book | last = Jenkins | first = Rhys | title = Links in the History of Engineering and Technology from Tudor Times | publisher = Ayer Publishing | year = 1936| page = 66 | isbn = 978-0-8369-2167-0}}</ref>