Editing Rhetoric (section)

====Cicero====
[[File:Thorvaldsen Cicero.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Bust of Marcus Tullius Cicero]]
{{Main|Cicero|Asiatic style|De Inventione|De Oratore|Brutus (Cicero)|De Optimo Genere Oratorum|De Partitionibus Oratoriae}}

For the Romans, oration became an important part of public life. [[Cicero]] ({{BCE|106–43}}) was chief among Roman rhetoricians and remains the best known ancient orator and the only orator who both spoke in public and produced treatises on the subject. ''[[Rhetorica ad Herennium]]'', formerly attributed to Cicero but now considered to be of unknown authorship, is one of the most significant works on rhetoric and is still widely used as a reference today. It is an extensive reference on the use of rhetoric, and in the [[Middle Ages]] and [[Renaissance]], it achieved wide publication as an advanced school text on rhetoric.

Cicero charted a middle path between the competing [[Atticism|Attic]] and [[Asiatic style]]s to become considered second only to [[Demosthenes]] among history's orators.<ref>{{cite book|first=Gesine|last=Manuwald|chapter=Relevance of Demosthenes and Atticism|title=Cicero, Philippics 3–9|volume=1|location=Berlin|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2007|pages=129ff}}</ref> His works include the early and very influential ''[[De Inventione]]'' (On Invention, often read alongside ''Ad Herennium'' as the two basic texts of rhetorical theory throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance), ''[[De Oratore]]'' (a fuller statement of rhetorical principles in dialogue form), ''[[Topica (Cicero)|Topics]]'' (a rhetorical treatment of common topics, highly influential through the Renaissance), ''[[Brutus (Cicero)|Brutus]]'' (a discussion of famous orators), and ''[[Orator (Cicero)|Orator]]'' (a defense of Cicero's style). Cicero also left a large body of speeches and letters which would establish the outlines of Latin eloquence and style for generations.

The rediscovery of Cicero's speeches (such as [[Pro Archia Poeta|the defense of Archias]]) and letters ([[Epistulae ad Atticum|to Atticus]]) by Italians like [[Petrarch]] helped to ignite the Renaissance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Petrarch {{!}} Western Civilization |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-westerncivilization/chapter/petrarch/ |access-date=2024-04-10 |website=courses.lumenlearning.com}}</ref>

Cicero championed the learning of Greek (and Greek rhetoric), contributed to Roman ethics, linguistics, philosophy, and politics, and emphasized the importance of all forms of appeal (emotion, humor, stylistic range, irony, and digression in addition to pure reasoning) in oratory. But perhaps his most significant contribution to subsequent rhetoric, and education in general, was his argument that orators learn not only about the specifics of their case (the ''hypothesis'') but also about the general questions from which they derived (the ''theses'').{{citation needed|reason=|date=September 2023}} Thus, in giving a speech in defense of a poet whose Roman citizenship had been questioned, the orator should examine not only the specifics of that poet's civic status, he should also examine the role and value of poetry and of literature more generally in Roman culture and political life. The orator, said Cicero, needed to be knowledgeable about all areas of human life and culture, including law, politics, history, literature, ethics, warfare, medicine, and even arithmetic and geometry. Cicero gave rise to the idea that the "ideal orator" be well-versed in all branches of learning: an idea that was rendered as "liberal humanism", and that lives on today in liberal arts or general education requirements in colleges and universities around the world.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cicero|title=De Inventione|at=I.35}}</ref>