Editing Polygraph (section)

==History==
Earlier societies utilized elaborate methods of [[lie detection]] which mainly involved [[torture]]. For instance, in the Middle Ages, boiling water was used to detect liars, as it was believed honest men would withstand it better than liars.<ref name="Grubin, D. 2005">{{cite journal | last1 = Grubin | first1 = D. | last2 = Madsen | first2 = L. | year = 2005 | title = Lie detection and the polygraph: A historical review | journal = Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology | volume = 16 | issue = 2| pages = 357–369 | doi=10.1080/14789940412331337353| s2cid = 144898901 }}</ref> Early devices for lie detection include an 1895 invention of [[Cesare Lombroso]] used to measure changes in blood pressure for police cases, a 1904 device by [[Vittorio Benussi]] used to measure breathing, the Mackenzie-Lewis Polygraph first developed by [[James Mackenzie (cardiologist)|James Mackenzie]] in 1906 and an abandoned project by American [[William Moulton Marston]] which used blood pressure to examine German prisoners of war (POWs).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nitv1.com/History.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203185847/http://www.nitv1.com/History.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2007-12-03|title=History of CVSA|work=nitv1.com}}</ref> Marston said he found a strong positive [[#correlation and dependence|correlation]] between systolic blood pressure and lying.<ref name="Lewis, J. A. 2009"/>

Marston wrote a second paper on the concept in 1915, when finishing his undergraduate studies. He entered [[Harvard Law School]] and graduated in 1918, re-publishing his earlier work in 1917.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Marston|first1 = William M|year=1917|title = Systolic Blood Pressure Changes in Deception|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1429147|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=2|issue=2|pages=117–163|doi=10.1037/h0073583}}</ref> Marston's main inspiration for the device was his wife, [[Elizabeth Holloway Marston]].<ref name="Grubin, D. 2005"/> "According to Marston’s son, it was his mother Elizabeth, Marston's wife, who suggested to him that 'When she got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed to climb{{'"}} (Lamb, 2001). Although Elizabeth is not listed as Marston’s collaborator in his early work, Lamb, Matte (1996), and others refer directly and indirectly to Elizabeth's work on her husband's deception research. She also appears in a picture taken in his polygraph laboratory in the 1920s (reproduced in Marston, 1938).<ref>National Research Council (2013); [http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10420&page=292 Page 292]</ref>

Despite his predecessors' contributions, Marston styled himself the "father of the polygraph". (Today he is often equally or more noted as the creator of the comic book character [[Wonder Woman]] and her [[Lasso of Truth]], which can force people to tell the truth.)<ref name="Lepore, Jill 2014, pages 183-209">Lepore, Jill. The Secret History of Wonder Woman, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014, {{ISBN|978-0385354042}}, pp. 183–209.</ref> Marston remained the device's primary advocate, lobbying for its use in the courts. In 1938 he published a book, ''The Lie Detector Test'', wherein he documented the theory and use of the device.<ref>Marston, William Moulton. ''The Lie Detector Test''. New York: Richard R. Smith, 1938.</ref> In 1938 he appeared in advertising by the [[Gillette (brand)|Gillette]] company claiming that the polygraph showed Gillette razors were better than the competition.<ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason magazine]]|date=May 2001|title=William Marston's Secret Identity|url=http://www.reason.com/news/show/28014.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.antipolygraph.org/documents/marston-razor-high-res.pdf|title=Lie Detector Charts Emotional Effects of Shaving – 1938 Gillette Advertisement|access-date=2007-01-10|archive-date=2018-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010213555/https://www.antipolygraph.org/documents/marston-razor-high-res.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[http://www.antipolygraph.org/documents/marston-fbi-file.pdf FBI File of William Moulton Marston] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621154436/http://www.antipolygraph.org/documents/marston-fbi-file.pdf |date=2007-06-21 }}(including report on Gillette advertising campaign)</ref>

A device recording both blood pressure and breathing was invented in 1921 by [[John Augustus Larson]] of the [[University of California]] and first applied in law enforcement work by the [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] Police Department under its nationally renowned police chief [[August Vollmer]].<ref name=Illumin>Katherine To for Illumin.  Fall 2003. [https://illumin.usc.edu/43/lie-detection-the-science-and-development-of-the-polygraph/ Lie Detection: The Science and Development of the Polygraph]</ref> Further work on this device was done by [[Leonarde Keeler]].<ref name=PolyMuseum>{{cite web|url=http://www.lie2me.net/thepolygraphmuseum/id12.html|title=Leonarde Keeler and his Instruments|work=lie2me.net}}</ref> As Larson's protege, Keeler updated the device by making it portable and added the [[galvanic skin response]] to it in 1939.  His device was then purchased by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]], and served as the prototype of the modern polygraph.<ref name="Grubin, D. 2005"/><ref name=Illumin/>

Several devices similar to Keeler's polygraph version included the Berkeley Psychograph, a blood pressure-pulse-respiration recorder developed by C. D. Lee in 1936<ref name="ReferenceA">Inbau, Fred E. Lie Detection and Criminal Interrogation, The Williams & Wilkins Company, 1948</ref> and the Darrow Behavior Research Photopolygraph, which was developed and intended solely for behavior research experiments.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Troville | first1 = P.V. | year = 1939 | title = A History of Lie Detection | journal = Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology | volume = 29 | issue = 6| page = 848 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Troville | first1 = P.V. | year = 1939 | title = A History of Lie Detection | journal = Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology | volume = 30 | issue = 1| page = 104 }}</ref>

A device which recorded muscular activity accompanying changes in blood pressure was developed in 1945 by John E. Reid, who claimed that greater accuracy could be obtained by making these recordings simultaneously with standard blood pressure-pulse-respiration recordings.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Reid | first1 = J. E. | year = 1945 | title = Simulated Blood Pressure Responses in Lie-Detection Tests and a Method for Their Deception | journal = Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology | volume = 36 | issue = 1| pages = 201–215 }}</ref>