Editing Parenting (section)

==Across the lifespan==

===Pre-pregnancy===
{{Main|Family planning|Prenatal care}}
[[Family planning]] is the decision-making process surrounding whether to become parents or not, and when the right time would be, including planning, preparing, and gathering resources. Prospective parents may assess (among other matters) whether they have access to sufficient financial resources, whether their family situation is stable, and whether they want to undertake the responsibility of raising a child. Worldwide, about 40% of all pregnancies are not planned, and more than 30 million babies are born each year as a result of unplanned pregnancies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sedgh|first1=Gilda|last2=Singh|first2=Susheela|last3=Hussain|first3=Rubina|date=2014-09-10|title=Intended and Unintended Pregnancies Worldwide in 2012 and Recent Trends|journal=Studies in Family Planning|volume=45|issue=3|pages=301–14|doi=10.1111/j.1728-4465.2014.00393.x|issn=0039-3665|pmc=4727534|pmid=25207494}}</ref>

[[Reproductive health]] and [[Pre-conception counseling|preconception care]] affect pregnancy, reproductive success, and the physical and mental health of both mother and child. A woman who is [[underweight]], whether due to poverty, [[eating disorder]]s, or illness, is less likely to have a healthy pregnancy and give birth to a healthy baby than a woman who is healthy. Similarly, a woman who is obese has a higher risk of difficulties, including [[gestational diabetes]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last1=Dean|first1=Sohni V.|last2=Lassi|first2=Zohra S.|last3=Imam|first3=Ayesha M.|last4=Bhutta|first4=Zulfiqar A.|date=2014-09-26|title=Preconception care: nutritional risks and interventions|journal=Reproductive Health|volume=11 |issue=Suppl 3|page=S3|doi=10.1186/1742-4755-11-S3-S3|pmc=4196560|pmid=25415364 |doi-access=free }}</ref>  Other health problems, such as [[infection]]s and [[iron-deficiency anemia]], can be detected and corrected before conception.

===Pregnancy and prenatal parenting===
{{Main|Pregnancy}}
[[File:Pregnant hot tub.jpg|alt=A pregnant woman floats in the corner of a swimming pool|thumb|Pregnant women and their unborn children benefit from moderate exercise, sufficient sleep, and high-quality nutrition.]]

During [[pregnancy]], the unborn child is affected by many decisions made by the parents, particularly choices linked to their [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]]. The health, activity level, and nutrition available to the mother can affect the child's development before [[Childbirth|birth]].<ref name=":0" /> Some mothers, especially in relatively wealthy countries, overeat and spend [[Sedentary lifestyle|too much time resting]]. Other mothers, especially if they are poor or [[Violence against women|abused]], may be [[overwork]]ed and may not be able to eat enough, or may not be able to afford healthful foods with sufficient iron, vitamins, and protein, for the unborn child to develop properly.

===Newborns and infants===
{{Main|Infant}}
[[File:Blake Infant Joy Copy AA 25.jpg|thumb|200px|A mother wishes joy towards her child in [[William Blake]]'s poem "[[Infant Joy]]". This copy, Copy AA, was printed and painted in 1826, is currently held by the [[Fitzwilliam Museum]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/object.xq?objectid=songsie.aa.illbk.25&java=no| title = Songs of Innocence and of Experience, copy AA, object 25 (Bentley 25, Erdman 25, Keynes 25) "Infant Joy" |editor=Morris Eaves |editor2=Robert N. Essick |editor3=Joseph Viscomi | publisher = [[William Blake Archive]] | access-date = 16 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140117084515/http://www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/object.xq?objectid=songsie.aa.illbk.25&java=no |archive-date=2014-01-17}}</ref> ]]
[[Newborn]] parenting is where the responsibilities of parenthood begin. A newborn's basic needs are food, sleep, comfort, and cleaning, which the parent provides.<ref name="kidshealth.org">{{Cite web |title=A Guide for First-Time Parents (for Parents) |url=https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/guide-parents.html |access-date=2024-03-18 |website=kidshealth.org |language=english}}</ref> An infant's only form of communication is crying, while there is some argument that infants have different types of cries for being hungry or in pain, that has largely been refuted.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Seifman |first=Debra |date=2017-06-15 |title=Parenting the Crying Infant |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |volume=15 |pages=149–154 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.009 |pmid=28685155 |pmc=5494986 }}</ref> Newborns and young infants require feedings every few hours, which is disruptive to adult [[Sleep cycle#Stages of sleep|sleep cycles]]. They respond enthusiastically to soft stroking, cuddling, and caressing. Gentle rocking back and forth often calms a crying infant, as do massages and warm baths.<ref name="kidshealth.org"/> Newborns may comfort themselves by sucking their thumb or by using a [[pacifier]]. The need to suckle is instinctive and allows newborns to feed. [[Breastfeeding]] is the recommended method of feeding by all major infant health organizations.<ref name="AAP_Policy">{{cite journal | title=Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk | author=Gartner LM |author2=Morton J |author3=Lawrence RA |author4=Naylor AJ |author5=O'Hare D |author6=Schanler RJ |author7=Eidelman AI | journal=Pediatrics | volume = 115 | issue=2 |date=February 2005 | pages=496–506 | doi=10.1542/peds.2004-2491 | pmid=15687461|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> If breastfeeding is not possible or desired, bottle feeding is a common alternative. Other alternatives include feeding breastmilk or formula with a cup, spoon, feeding syringe, or nursing supplement.

The forming of [[attachment in children|attachments]] is considered the foundation of the infant's capacity to form and conduct relationships throughout life. Attachment is not the same as love or affection, although they often go together. Attachments develop immediately, and a lack of attachment or a seriously disrupted attachment has the potential to cause severe damage to a child's health and well-being. Physically, one may not see symptoms or indications of a disorder, but the child may be affected emotionally. Studies show that children with secure attachments have the ability to form successful relationships, express themselves on an interpersonal basis, and have higher self-esteem.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van der Voort|first1=Anja|last2=Juffer|first2=Femmie|last3=J. Bakermans-Kranenburg|first3=Marian|date=2014-01-01|editor-last=Barlow|editor-first=Jane|title=Sensitive parenting is the foundation for secure attachment relationships and positive social-emotional development of children|url=https://doi.org/10.1108/JCS-12-2013-0038|journal=Journal of Children's Services|volume=9|issue=2|pages=165–176|doi=10.1108/JCS-12-2013-0038|issn=1746-6660}}</ref> Conversely children who have neglectful or emotionally unavailable caregivers can exhibit behavioral problems such as post-traumatic stress disorder or [[oppositional defiant disorder]].<ref>SS, Hamilton. "Result Filters." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 October 2008. Web. 13 March 2013.</ref> Oppositional-defiant disorder is a pattern of disobedient and rebellious behavior toward authority figures.

===Toddlers===
{{Main|Toddler}}
[[File:Maud Humphrey - Maternal cares.png|thumb|A painting by [[Maud Humphrey]] of a child at a small table with dolls and toy china]]

Toddlers are small children between 12 and 36 months old who are much more active than infants and become challenged with learning how to do simple tasks by themselves. At this stage, parents are heavily involved in showing the small child how to do things rather than just doing things for them; it is normal for the [[toddler]] to mimic the parents. Toddlers need help to build their vocabulary, increase their communication skills, and manage their emotions. Toddlers will also begin to understand social etiquette, such as being polite and taking turns.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fox |first=Isadora |date=11 June 2015 |url=https://www.parents.com/toddlers-preschoolers/development/manners/teaching-kids-to-mind-their-manners/ |title=Teaching Kids to Mind Their Manners: How to Raise a Polite Child |website=[[Parents (magazine)|Parents]]}}</ref>

[[File:Parenting.JPG|thumb|A father and daughter in [[Trivandrum]], [[India]]|left]]
Toddlers are very curious about the world around them and are eager to explore it. They seek greater independence and responsibility and may become frustrated when things do not go the way that they want or expect. [[Tantrum]]s begin at this stage, which is sometimes referred to as the 'Terrible Twos'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.safekids.co.uk/terrible-twos-explained.html |title=The Terrible Twos Explained – Safe Kids (UK) |publisher=Safe Kids |date=10 May 2011 |access-date=2 May 2012}}</ref> Tantrums are often caused by the child's frustration over the particular situation, and are sometimes caused, simply because they are not able to communicate properly. Parents of toddlers are expected to help guide and teach the child, establish basic routines (such as washing hands before meals or brushing teeth before bed), and increase the child's responsibilities. It is also normal for toddlers to be frequently frustrated. It is an essential step to their development. They will learn through experience, trial, and error. This means that they need to experience being frustrated when something does not work for them in order to move on to the next stage. When the toddler is frustrated, they will often misbehave with actions like screaming, hitting or biting. Parents need to be careful when reacting to such behaviors; giving threats or punishments is usually not helpful and might only make the situation worse.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pitman|first=Teresa|title=Toddler Frustration|url=http://www.todaysparent.com/toddler/toddler-behaviour/toddler-frustration|publisher=Todaysparent|access-date=3 December 2011}}</ref>  Research groups led by [[Daniel Schechter]], Alytia Levendosky, and others have shown that parents with histories of maltreatment and violence exposure often have difficulty helping their toddlers and preschool-age children with the very same emotionally dysregulated behaviors which can remind traumatized parents of their adverse experiences and associated mental states.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schechter |first1=Daniel S. |last2=Willheim |first2=Erica |last3=Hinojosa |first3=Claudia |last4=Scholfield-Kleinman |first4=Kimberly |last5=Turner |first5=J. Blake |last6=McCaw |first6=Jaime |last7=Zeanah |first7=Charles H. |last8=Myers |first8=Michael M. |title=Subjective and Objective Measures of Parent-Child Relationship Dysfunction, Child Separation Distress, and Joint Attention |journal=Psychiatry |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=130–44 |year=2010 |pmid=20557225 |doi=10.1521/psyc.2010.73.2.130 |s2cid=5132495 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schechter |first1=Daniel S. |last2=Zygmunt |first2=Annette |last3=Coates |first3=Susan W. |last4=Davies |first4=Mark |last5=Trabka |first5=Kimberly A. |last6=McCaw |first6=Jaime |last7=Kolodji |first7=Ann |last8=Robinson |first8=Joann L. |title=Caregiver traumatization adversely impacts young children's mental representations on the MacArthur Story Stem Battery |journal=Attachment & Human Development |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=187–205 |year=2007 |pmid=18007959 |pmc=2078523 |doi=10.1080/14616730701453762 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Levendosky |first1=Alytia A. |last2=Leahy |first2=Kerry L. |last3=Bogat |first3=G. Anne |last4=Davidson |first4=William S. |last5=von Eye |first5=Alexander |title=Domestic violence, maternal parenting, maternal mental health, and infant externalizing behavior |journal=Journal of Family Psychology |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=544–52 |year=2006 |pmid=17176188 |doi=10.1037/0893-3200.20.4.544 }}</ref>

Regarding [[Sex differences in humans#Sociology|gender differences]] in parenting, data from the US in 2014 states that, on an average day, among adults living in households with children under age 6, women spent one hour providing physical care (such as bathing or feeding a child) to household children. By contrast, men spent 23 minutes providing physical care.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/news.release/atus.nr0.htm|title=American Time Use Survey|date=24 June 2015|publisher=[[Bureau of Labor Statistics]]}}</ref>

===Child===
{{Main|Child|Early childhood|Childhood|Preadolescence}}
[[File:Miryam Sidrensky running with her daughter.jpg|thumb|[[Sprint (running)|Sprinter]] [[Miriam Siderenski]] running alongside her daughter]]
Younger children start to become more independent and begin to build friendships. They are able to reason and can make their own decisions in many hypothetical situations. Young children demand constant attention but gradually learn how to deal with boredom and begin to be able to play independently. They enjoy helping and also feeling useful and capable. Parents can assist their children by encouraging social interactions and modeling proper social behaviors. A large part of learning in the early years comes from being involved in activities and household duties. Parents who observe their children in play or join with them in child-driven play have the opportunity to glimpse into their children's world, learn to communicate more effectively with their children, and are given another setting to offer gentle, nurturing guidance.<ref name=AAP>{{cite web|title=The Importance of Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bonds |url=http://www.wcss.wa.edu.au/pdf/importanceoftheplay_AAP.pdf |author=Kenneth R. Ginsburg |publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091011151153/http://www.wcss.wa.edu.au/pdf/importanceoftheplay_AAP.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2009 }}</ref> Parents also teach their children health, hygiene, and eating habits through instruction and by example.

Parents are expected to make decisions about their child's [[education]]. Parenting styles in this area diverge greatly at this stage, with some parents they choose to become heavily involved in arranging organized activities and early learning programs. Other parents choose to let the child develop with few organized activities.

Children begin to learn responsibility and consequences for their actions with parental assistance. Some parents provide a small allowance that increases with age to help teach children the value of money and how to be responsible.

Parents who are consistent and fair with their [[child discipline|discipline]], who openly communicate and offer explanations to their children, and who do not neglect the needs of their children in any way often find they have fewer problems with their children as they mature.

When child conduct problems are encountered, behavioral and [[Cognitive behavioral therapy|cognitive-behavioral]] group-based parenting interventions have been found to be effective at improving child conduct, parenting skills, and parental mental health.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=M |last1=Furlong |first2=S |last2=McGilloway |first3=T |last3=Bywater |first4=J |last4=Hutchings |first5=SM |last5=Smith |first6=M |last6=Donnelly |date=2012-02-15 |title=Behavioural and Cognitive-Behavioural Group-Based Parenting Programmes for Early-Onset Conduct Problems in Children Aged 3 to 12 Years |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |issue=2 |pages=CD008225 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008225.pub2 |doi-access=free |language=en |pmid=22336837}}</ref>

===Adolescents===
{{More citations needed|date=May 2018}}

{{Main|Adolescence}}
Parents often feel isolated and alone when parenting [[Adolescence|adolescents]].<ref>[https://www.techspurs.com/sharenting/ Sharenting – Now became Oversharenting & Danger] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816042806/https://www.techspurs.com/sharenting/ |date=16 August 2016 }}</ref> Adolescence can be a time of high [[risk]] for children, where newfound freedoms can result in decisions that drastically open up or close off life opportunities. There are also large changes that occur in the brain during adolescence; the emotional center of the brain is now fully developed, but the rational frontal cortex has not matured fully and still is not able to keep all of those emotions in check.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.talkingtoteens.com/about-your-teenager/|title=What was my teenager thinking?|date=2017-09-26|work=Talking to Teens|access-date=2018-02-12|language=en-US|archive-date=13 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213021913/https://www.talkingtoteens.com/about-your-teenager/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Adolescents tend to increase the amount of time spent with peers of the opposite gender; however, they still maintain the amount of time spent with those of the same gender—and do this by decreasing the amount of time spent with their parents.

Although adolescents look to [[peer group|peers]] and adults outside the family for guidance and models for how to behave, parents can remain influential in their development. Studies have shown that parents can have a significant impact, for instance, on how much teens drink.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.talkingtoteens.com/underage-drinking/ |title=7 Things Most Parents Get Wrong About Teen Drinking |date=2017-07-07 |work=Talking to Teens |access-date=2018-02-12 |language=en-US |archive-date=13 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213023259/https://www.talkingtoteens.com/underage-drinking/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other studies show that parents continued presence in provides stability and nurture to their developing adolescents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sandra L D'Angelo |last2=Hatim Α Omar |date=2003-01-01 |title=Parenting Adolescents |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/IJAMH.2003.15.1.11/html |journal=International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=11–20 |doi=10.1515/IJAMH.2003.15.1.11 |pmid=12723444 |issn=2191-0278}}</ref>

During adolescence children begin to form their [[identity (social science)|identity]] and start to test and develop the interpersonal and occupational roles that they will assume as adults. Therefore, it is important that parents treat them as young adults. Parental issues at this stage of parenting include dealing with rebelliousness related to a greater desire to partake in risky behaviors. In order to prevent risky behaviors, it is important for the parents to build a trusting relationship with their children. This can be achieved through behavioral control, parental monitoring, consistent discipline, parental warmth and support, inductive reasoning, and strong parent-child communication.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hoskins|first=Donna |date=2014-09-18 |title=Consequences of Parenting on Adolescent Outcomes |journal=Societies|language=en|volume=4 |issue=3|pages=506–531|doi=10.3390/soc4030506 |issn=2075-4698 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Newman|first1=Kathy|last2=Harrison|first2=Lynda|last3=Dashiff|first3=Carol|last4=Davies |first4=Susan |date=February 2008|title=Relationships between parenting styles and risk behaviors in adolescent health: an integrative literature review|journal=Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem|volume=16|issue=1|pages=142–150|doi=10.1590/S0104-11692008000100022|pmid=18392544|issn=0104-1169|doi-access=free|citeseerx=10.1.1.606.1774}}</ref>

When a trusting relationship is built up, adolescents are more likely to approach their parents for help when faced with negative peer pressure. Helping children build a strong foundation will ultimately help them resist negative peer pressure. Not only will a positive relationship between adolescent and parent benefit when faced with peer pressure, it will help with identity-processing in early adolescents.<ref name="Dellmann-Jenkins 177–186">{{Cite journal |last1=Dellmann-Jenkins |first1=Mary |last2=Blankemeyer |first2=Maureen |last3=Pinkard |first3=Odessa |date=April 2000 |title=Young Adult Children and Grandchildren in Primary Caregiver Roles to Older Relatives and Their Service Needs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00177.x |journal=Family Relations |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=177–186 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00177.x |issn=0197-6664}}</ref>
Research by Berzonsky et al. found that adolescents that were open and trusting of their parents were given more freedom and their parents were less likely to track them and control their behavior.<ref>Berzonsky, Michael D., Susan JT Branje, and Wim Meeus. "Identity-processing style, psychosocial resources, and adolescents' perceptions of parent-adolescent relations." ''The Journal of Early Adolescence'' 27.3 (2007): 324-345.</ref>

===Adults===
Parenting does not usually end when a child turns 18. Support may be needed in a child's life well beyond the adolescent years and can continue into middle and later adulthood. Parenting can be a lifelong process. Parents may provide financial support to their adult children, which can also include providing an inheritance after death. The life perspective and wisdom given by a parent can benefit their adult children in their own lives. Becoming a [[grandparent]] is another milestone and has many similarities with parenting. Roles can be reversed in some ways when adult children become [[caregivers]] to their elderly parents.<ref name="Dellmann-Jenkins 177–186"/>