Editing Nationalism (section)

=== 20th century ===
==== China ====
{{main|Chinese nationalism}}
The awakening of nationalism across Asia helped shape the history of the continent. The key episode was the [[Russo-Japanese War|decisive defeat of Russia]] by Japan in 1905, demonstrating the military advancement of non-Europeans in a modern war. The defeat quickly led to manifestations of a new interest in nationalism in China, as well as Turkey and Persia.<ref>Rotem Kowner, ed., ''The impact of the Russo-Japanese war'' (Routledge, 2006).</ref> In China [[Sun Yat-sen]] (1866–1925) launched his new party the [[Kuomintang]] (National People's Party) in defiance of the decrepit Empire, which was run by outsiders. The Kuomintang recruits pledged:
<blockquote>[F]rom this moment I will destroy the old and build the new, and fight for the self-determination of the people, and will apply all my strength to the support of the Chinese Republic and the realization of democracy through the Three Principles, ... for the progress of good government, the happiness and perpetual peace of the people, and for the strengthening of the foundations of the state in the name of peace throughout the world.<ref>Hans Kohn, ''Nationalism: Its Meaning and History'' (1955) p. 87.</ref></blockquote>

The Kuomintang largely ran China until the Communists took over in 1949. But the latter had also been strongly influenced by Sun's nationalism as well as by the [[May Fourth Movement]] in 1919. It was a nationwide protest movement about the domestic backwardness of China and has often been depicted as the intellectual foundation for Chinese Communism.<ref>Shakhar Rahav, ''The Rise of Political Intellectuals in Modern China: May Fourth Societies and the Roots of Mass-Party Politics'' (Oxford UP, 2015).</ref> The [[New Culture Movement]] stimulated by the May Fourth Movement waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Historian [[Patricia Ebrey]] says:
<blockquote>Nationalism, patriotism, progress, science, democracy, and freedom were the goals; [[imperialism]], [[feudalism]], [[warlordism]], autocracy, [[patriarchy]], and blind adherence to tradition were the enemies. Intellectuals struggled with how to be strong and modern and yet Chinese, how to preserve China as a political entity in the world of competing nations.<ref>[[Patricia Buckley Ebrey]], ''Cambridge Illustrated History of China'' (1996) p. 271.</ref></blockquote>

In 1911, following the [[1911 Revolution|Xinhai Revolution]], Sun's multicultural form of Chinese nationalism manifested as [[Zhonghua minzu]], a concept that promoted the idea of [[Five Races Under One Union]], that sidelined [[Han Chinese]] [[Sinocentrism|supremacy]] in favor of coexistence alongside [[Manchu people|Manchus]], [[Mongols]], [[Islam in China|Chinese Muslims]] ([[Hui people|Hui]]/[[Uyghurs]]), and [[Tibetans]], all of which were supposedly equal branches of the Chinese nation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Duara|first=Prasenjit|title=Rescuing History from the Nation|date=1995|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-16722-0|pages=142|doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226167237.001.0001}}</ref><ref name="sebok">{{Cite book |last=Šebok |first=Filip |title=Contemporary China: a New Superpower? |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-03-239508-1 |editor-last=Kironska |editor-first=Kristina |chapter=Historical Legacy |pages=15–28 |doi=10.4324/9781003350064-3 |editor-last2=Turscanyi |editor-first2=Richard Q.}}</ref>{{Rp|page=19}} The rhetorical move, as China historian [[Joseph Esherick (historian)|Joseph Esherick]] points out, was based on practical concerns about imperial threats from the international environment and conflicts on the Chinese frontiers.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|author1=Esherick, Joseph|author2=Kayalı, Hasan |author3=Van Young, Eric|title=Empire to nation : historical perspectives on the making of the modern world|date=2011|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-7815-9|oclc=1030355615}}</ref>

==== Greece ====
{{main|Greek nationalism}}
Nationalist [[Irredentism|irredentist]] movements Greek advocating for [[Enosis]] (unity of ethnically Greek states with the [[Greece|Hellenic Republic]] to create a unified Greek state), used today in the case of [[Cyprus]], as well as the [[Megali Idea]], the Greek movement that advocated for the reconquering of Greek ancestral lands from the Ottoman Empire (such as [[Crete]], [[Ionia]], [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]], [[Northern Epirus]], [[Cappadocia]], [[Thrace]] among others) that were popular in the late 19th and early to 20th centuries, led to many Greek states and regions that were ethnically Greek to eventually unite with Greece and the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Greco-Turkish war of 1919]].

The [[4th of August Regime|4th of August regime]] was a [[Fascism|fascist]] or fascistic nationalist authoritarian dictatorship inspired by [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini's]] [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] and [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] and led by Greek general [[Ioannis Metaxas]] from 1936 to his death in 1941. It advocated for the Third Hellenic Civilization, a culturally superior Greek civilization that would be the successor of the First and Second Greek civilizations, that were [[Ancient Greece]] and the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine empire]] respectively. It promoted [[Culture of Greece|Greek traditions]], [[Greek folk music|folk music]] and [[Greek dances|dances]], [[classicism]] as well as [[medievalism]].

==== Africa ====
{{main|African nationalism|History of Africa}}
[[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-124-8.jpg|thumb|[[Kenneth Kaunda]], an anti-colonial political leader from [[Zambia]], pictured at a nationalist rally in colonial [[Northern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zambia]]) in 1960]]
In the 1880s the European powers divided up almost all of Africa (only [[Ethiopia]] and [[Liberia]] were independent). They ruled until after World War II when forces of nationalism grew much stronger. In the 1950s and the 1960s, colonial holdings became independent states. The process was usually peaceful but there were several long bitter bloody civil wars, as in Algeria,<ref>Alistair Horne, ''A savage war of peace: Algeria 1954–1962'' (1977).</ref> Kenya<ref>David Anderson, ''Histories of the hanged: The dirty war in Kenya and the end of empire'' (2005).</ref> and elsewhere.

Across Africa, nationalism drew upon the organizational skills that natives had learned in the British and French, and other armies during the world wars. It led to organizations that were not controlled by or endorsed by either the colonial powers or the traditional local power structures that had been collaborating with the colonial powers. Nationalistic organizations began to challenge both the traditional and the new colonial structures and finally displaced them. Leaders of nationalist movements took control when the European authorities exited; many ruled for decades or until they died off. These structures included political, educational, religious, and other social organizations. In recent decades, many African countries have undergone the triumph and defeat of nationalistic fervor, changing in the process the loci of the centralizing state power and patrimonial state.<ref>Gabriel Almond and James S. Coleman, ''The Politics of the Developing Areas'' (1971)</ref><ref>Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam, ''Nationalism in colonial and post-colonial Africa'' (University Press of America, 1977).</ref><ref>Thomas Hodgkin, ''Nationalism in Colonial Africa'' (1956)</ref>

[[South Africa]], a British colony, was exceptional in that it became virtually independent by 1931. From 1948, it was controlled by white [[Afrikaner]] nationalists, who focused on racial segregation and white minority rule, known as [[apartheid]]. It lasted until 1994, when [[1994 South African general election|multiracial elections were held]]. The international anti-apartheid movement supported black nationalists until success was achieved,{{Verify source|date=October 2022}} and [[Nelson Mandela]] was elected president.<ref>Nancy L. Clark and William H. Worger, ''South Africa: The rise and fall of apartheid'' (Routledge, 2013).</ref>

==== Middle East ====
[[Arab nationalism]], a movement toward liberating and empowering the Arab peoples of the Middle East, emerged during the late 19th century, inspired by other independence movements of the 18th and 19th centuries. As the [[Ottoman Empire]] declined and the Middle East was carved up by the Great Powers of Europe, Arabs sought to establish their own independent nations ruled by Arabs, rather than foreigners. [[Syria]] was established in 1920; Transjordan (later [[Jordan]]) gradually gained independence between 1921 and 1946; [[Saudi Arabia]] was established in 1932; and [[Egypt]] achieved gradually gained independence between 1922 and 1952. The [[Arab League]] was established in 1945 to promote Arab interests and cooperation between the new Arab states.

The [[Zionism|Zionist]] movement, emerged among European Jews in the 19th century. In 1882, Jews, from Europe, began to emigrate to [[Ottoman Palestine]] with the goal of establishing a new Jewish homeland. The majority and local population in Palestine, [[Palestinian]] Arabs were demanding independence from the British Mandate.

==== Breakup of Yugoslavia ====
{{Main|Breakup of Yugoslavia}}
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There was a rise in extreme nationalism after the [[Revolutions of 1989]] had triggered the collapse of [[communism]] in the 1990s. That left many people with no identity. The people under communist rule had to integrate, but they now found themselves free to choose. That made long-dormant conflicts rise and create sources of serious conflict.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Berg|first=Steven|date=1993|title=Nationalism Redux: Through the Glass of the Post-Communist States Darkly.|journal=Ethnic Conflicts WorldWide, Current History|pages=162–166}}</ref> When communism fell in Yugoslavia, serious conflict arose, which led to a rise in extreme nationalism.

In his 1992 article ''Jihad vs. McWorld,'' [[Benjamin Barber]] proposed that the fall of communism would cause large numbers of people to search for unity and that small-scale wars would become common, as groups will attempt to redraw boundaries, identities, cultures and ideologies.<ref name="barber">{{Cite journal |last=Barber |first=Benjamin |date=1992 |title=Jihad vs. McWorld: the two axial principles of our age—tribalism and globalism—clash at every point except one: they may both be threatening to democracy |journal=The Atlantic}}</ref> The fall of communism also allowed for an "us vs. them" mentality to return.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Huntington |first=Samuel |date=1993 |title=The Clash of Civilizations |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=22–49 |doi=10.2307/20045621 |jstor=20045621}}</ref> Governments would become vehicles for social interests, and the country would attempt to form national policies based on the majority culture, religion or ethnicity.<ref name=":0"/> Some newly sprouted democracies had large differences in policies on matters, which ranged from immigration and human rights to trade and commerce.

The academic Steven Berg felt that the root of nationalist conflicts was the demand for autonomy and a separate existence.<ref name=":0"/> That nationalism can give rise to strong emotions, which may lead to a group fighting to survive, especially as after the fall of communism, political boundaries did not match ethnic boundaries.<ref name=":0"/> Serious conflicts often arose and escalated very easily, as individuals and groups acted upon their beliefs and caused death and destruction.<ref name=":0"/> When that happens, states unable to contain the conflict run the risk of slowing their progress at democratization.

Yugoslavia was established after the First World War and joined three acknowledged ethnic groups: [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes|Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]]. The national census numbers from 1971 to 1981 measured an increase from 1.3% to 5.4% in the population that ethnically identified itself as [[Yugoslavs]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=Steven |date=2004 |title=Why Yugoslavia Fell Apart |journal=Current History |volume=92 |issue=577 |pages=357–363 |s2cid=151283265 |doi=10.1525/curh.1993.92.577.357}}</ref> That meant that the country, almost as a whole, was divided by distinctive religious, ethnic and national loyalties after nearly 50 years.

Nationalist separatism of Croatia and Slovenia from the rest of Yugoslavia has basis in historical imperialist conquests of the region ([[Austria-Hungary]] and [[Ottoman Empire]]) and existence within separate spheres of religious, cultural and industrial influence – Catholicism, Protenstantism, [[Central Europe]]an cultural orientation in the northwest, versus Orthodoxy, Islam and [[Orientalism]] in the southeast. Croatia and Slovenia were subsequently more economically and industrially advanced and remained as such throughout existence of both forms of Yugoslavia.<ref name=":2" />

In the 1970s, the leadership of the separate territories in Yugoslavia protected only territorial interests, at the expense of other territories. In Croatia, there was almost a split within the territory between Serbs and Croats so that any political decision would kindle unrest, and tensions could cross adjacent territories: Bosnia and Herzegovina.<ref name=":3" /> Bosnia had no group with a majority; Muslim, Serb, Croat, and Yugoslavs stopped leadership from advancing here as well. Political organizations were not able to deal successfully with such diverse nationalisms. Within the territories, leaderships would not compromise. To do so would create a winner in one ethnic group and a loser in another and raise the possibility of a serious conflict. That strengthened the political stance promoting ethnic identities and caused intense and divided political leadership within Yugoslavia.

[[File:Cold War border changes.png|thumb|[[List of national border changes since World War I|Changes in national boundaries]] in post-Soviet and post-Yugoslav states after the [[revolutions of 1989]] were followed by a resurgence of nationalism.]]
In the 1980s, Yugoslavia began to break into fragments.<ref name=":1" /> Economic conditions within Yugoslavia were deteriorating. Conflict in the disputed territories was stimulated by the rise in mass nationalism and ethnic hostilities.<ref name=":3" /> The per capita income of people in the northwestern territory, encompassing Croatia and Slovenia, was several times higher than that of the southern territory. That, combined with escalating violence from ethnic Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, intensified economic conditions.<ref name=":3" /> The violence greatly contributed to the rise of extreme nationalism of Serbs in Serbia and the rest of Yugoslavia. The ongoing conflict in Kosovo was propagandized by a communist Serb, [[Slobodan Milošević]], to increase Serb nationalism further. As mentioned, that nationalism gave rise to powerful emotions which grew the force of Serbian nationalism by highly nationalist demonstrations in Vojvodina, Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo. Serbian nationalism was so high that Slobodan Milošević ousted leaders in Vojvodina and Montenegro, repressed Albanians within Kosovo and eventually controlled four of the eight regions/territories.<ref name=":3" /> Slovenia, one of the four regions not under communist control, favoured a democratic state.

In Slovenia, fear was mounting because Milošević would use the militia to suppress the country, as had occurred in Kosovo.<ref name=":3" /> Half of Yugoslavia wanted to be democratic, the other wanted a new nationalist authoritarian regime. In fall of 1989, tensions came to a head, and Slovenia asserted its political and economic independence from Yugoslavia and seceded. In January 1990, there was a total break with Serbia at the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, an institution that had been conceived by Milošević to strengthen unity and later became the backdrop for the fall of communism in Yugoslavia.

In August 1990, a warning to the region was issued when ethnically divided groups attempted to alter the government structure. The republic borders established by the Communist regime in the postwar period were extremely vulnerable to challenges from ethnic communities. Ethnic communities arose because they did not share the identity with everyone within the new post-communist borders,<ref name=":3" /> which threatened the new governments. The same disputes were erupting that were in place prior to Milošević and were compounded by actions from his regime.

Also, within the territory, the Croats and the Serbs were in direct competition for control of government. Elections were held and increased potential conflicts between Serbian and Croat nationalism. Serbia wanted to be separate and to decide its own future based on its own ethnic composition, but that would then give Kosovo encouragement to become independent from Serbia. Albanians in Kosovo were already practically independent from Kosovo, but Serbia did not want to let Kosovo become independent. Albanian nationalists wanted their own territory, but that would require a redrawing of the map and threaten neighboring territories. When communism fell in Yugoslavia, serious conflict arose, which led to the rise in extreme nationalism.

Nationalism again gave rise to powerful emotions, which evoked, in some extreme cases, a willingness to die for what one believed, a fight for the survival of the group.<ref name=":0"/> The end of communism began a long period of conflict and war for the region. For six years, 200,000–500,000 people died in the Bosnian War.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ramet|first=Sabrina|date=1996|title=Eastern Europe's Painful Transition |journal=Current History|volume=95 |issue=599 |pages=97–102|doi=10.1525/curh.1996.95.599.97 |s2cid=249691639 }}</ref> All three major ethnicities in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnian Muslims, Croats, Serbs) suffered at the hands of each other.<ref name=":2" />{{verify source|date=February 2022}} The war garnered assistance from groups, Muslim, Orthodox, and Western Christian, and from state actors, which supplied all sides; Saudi Arabia and Iran supported Bosnia; Russia supported Serbia; Central European and the West, including the US, supported Croatia; and the Pope supported Slovenia and Croatia.