Editing Moose (section)

===North America===
After expanding for most of the 20th century, the moose population of North America has been in steep decline since the 1990s. Populations expanded greatly with improved habitat and protection, but now the moose population is declining rapidly.<ref name="Robbins">{{cite news|last=Robbins|first=Jim|title=Moose Die-Off Alarms Scientists|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/15/science/earth/something-is-killing-off-the-moose.html|access-date=December 6, 2013|newspaper=New York Times|date=October 14, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210211456/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/15/science/earth/something-is-killing-off-the-moose.html |archive-date=December 10, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> This decline has been attributed to opening of roads and landscapes into the northern range of moose, allowing deer to become populous in areas where they were not previously common. This encroachment by deer on moose habitat brought moose into contact with previously unfamiliar pathogens, including brainworm and liver fluke, and these parasites are believed to have contributed to the population decline of moose.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.startribune.com/deer-bringing-death-to-minnesota-s-moose/455232463/ |title=Solved: Deer have direct role in death of Minnesota moose |website=[[Star Tribune]] |date=7 November 2017 |access-date=April 20, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420030727/http://www.startribune.com/deer-bringing-death-to-minnesota-s-moose/455232463/ |archive-date=April 20, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Moose population decline |date=2 December 2014 |url=https://firstforwildlife.wordpress.com/2014/12/02/studies-show-relationship-between-wolves-and-minnesota-moose-population-decline/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105023308/https://firstforwildlife.wordpress.com/2014/12/02/studies-show-relationship-between-wolves-and-minnesota-moose-population-decline/ |access-date=2023-11-05 |archive-date=2023-11-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In [[North America]], the moose range includes almost all of [[Canada]] (excluding the [[arctic]] and [[Vancouver Island]]), most of [[Alaska]], northern and eastern [[North Dakota]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gf.nd.gov/wildlife/id/ungulates/moose|title=Moose &#124; North Dakota Game and Fish|website=gf.nd.gov|access-date=2023-11-05|archive-date=2023-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105021357/https://gf.nd.gov/wildlife/id/ungulates/moose|url-status=live}}</ref> northern [[New England]], the Adirondack Mountain region and Taconic highlands of northeast New York State,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wattles |first1=David W. |last2=DeStefano |first2=Stephen |title=STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF MOOSE IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES |url=https://alcesjournal.org/index.php/alces/article/view/73 |journal=Alces: A Journal Devoted to the Biology and Management of Moose |pages=53–68 |language=en |date=13 January 2011 |volume=47 |access-date=4 November 2023 |archive-date=4 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104181813/https://alcesjournal.org/index.php/alces/article/view/73 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Moose - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation |url=https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/6964.html |website=www.dec.ny.gov |access-date=2023-10-22 |archive-date=2023-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913110243/https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/6964.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the upper [[Rocky Mountains]], northern [[Minnesota]], northern [[Wisconsin]], [[Michigan]]'s [[Upper Peninsula]], and [[Isle Royale]] in [[Lake Superior]]. In the West, moose populations extend across Canada ([[British Columbia]] and [[Alberta]]). Isolated groups have been verified as far south as the mountains of [[Utah]] and [[Colorado]] and as far west as the [[Lake Wenatchee]] area of the [[Cascade Mountains|Washington Cascades]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://wildlife.utah.gov/news/06-04/permits.php |title= Utah Division of Wildlife Resources |publisher= Wildlife.utah.gov |date= April 28, 2006 |access-date= November 27, 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071005181422/http://www.wildlife.utah.gov/news/06-04/permits.php |archive-date = October 5, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/2003215177_webmoose21.html |work= The Seattle Times |title= Oregon moose population is booming |date= August 21, 2006 |access-date= August 19, 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100417112102/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2003215177_webmoose21.html |archive-date= April 17, 2010 |url-status= live }}</ref> In the northwestern US, the range includes [[Wyoming]], [[Montana]], [[Idaho]], and smaller areas of [[Washington (state)|Washington]], and [[Oregon]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.dfw.state.or.us/conservationstrategy/news/2009/2009_october.asp |title= ODFW Oregon Conservation Strategy News |publisher= Dfw.state.or.us |access-date= June 27, 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130706225719/http://www.dfw.state.or.us/conservationstrategy/news/2009/2009_october.asp |archive-date= July 6, 2013 |url-status= live }}</ref> Moose have extended their range southwards in the western Rocky Mountains, with initial sightings in [[Yellowstone National Park]] in 1868, and then to the northern slope of the [[Uinta Mountains]] in Utah in the first half of the twentieth century.<ref name=Wolfe>{{cite journal |title= A History of Moose Management in Utah |first1= Michael L. |last1=Wolfe |first2=Kent R. |last2=Hersey |first3=David C. |last3=Stoner |journal= Alces |volume=46 |pages= 37–52 |year=2010 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257449101 |access-date= January 2, 2017 }}</ref> This is the southernmost naturally established moose population in the United States.<ref name=Wolfe/> In 1978, a few breeding pairs were reintroduced in western Colorado, and the state's moose population is now more than 2,400.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nadeau |first1=M. Steven |last2=DeCesare |first2=Nicholas J. |last3=Brimeyer |first3=Douglas G. |last4=Bergman |first4=Eric J. |last5=Harris |first5=Richard B. |last6=Hersey |first6=Kent R. |last7=Huebner |first7=Kari K. |last8=Matthews |first8=Patrick E. |last9=Thomas |first9=Timothy P. |year=2017 |title=Status and trends of moose populations and hunting opportunity in the Western United States |url=https://wdfw.wa.gov/publications/01955/wdfw01955.pdf |journal=Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife }}{{Dead link|date=February 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In northeastern North America, the [[Eastern moose]]'s history is very well documented: moose meat was a staple in the diet of indigenous peoples for centuries. The common name "moose" was brought into English from the word used by those who lived in present day coastal [[Rhode Island]]. The indigenous
people often used moose hides for leather and its meat as an ingredient in [[pemmican]], a type of dried jerky used as a source of sustenance in winter or on long journeys.<ref>{{cite book |first=Nancy |last=Cappelloni |title=Cranberry Cooking for All Seasons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u-uomE8l8g8C&pg=PA14 |access-date=June 25, 2011 |date=November 2002 |publisher=Spinner Publications |isbn=978-0-932027-71-9 |page=14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009073801/http://books.google.com/books?id=u-uomE8l8g8C&pg=PA14 |archive-date=October 9, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The historical range of the subspecies extended from well into Quebec, the Maritimes, and Eastern Ontario south to include all of New England finally ending in the very northeastern tip of [[Pennsylvania]] in the west, cutting off somewhere near the mouth of the [[Hudson River]] in the south. The moose has been extinct in much of the eastern U.S. for as long as 150 years, due to colonial era overhunting and destruction of its habitat: Dutch, French, and British colonial sources all attest to its presence in the mid 17th century from Maine south to areas within {{convert|100|mi|km|order=flip|sp=us}} of present-day Manhattan. However, by the 1870s, only a handful of moose existed in this entire region in very remote pockets of forest; less than 20% of suitable habitat remained.<ref name="scholarworks.umass.edu">{{cite thesis|url=http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1791&context=theses|title=STATUS, MOVEMENTS, AND HABITAT USE OF MOOSE IN MASSACHUSETTS|format=PDF|first=David W.|last=Wattles|year=2011|degree=[[Master of Science|M.S.]]|publisher=University of Massachusetts Amherst|access-date=November 22, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202232721/http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1791&context=theses|archive-date=December 2, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Since the 1980s, however, moose populations have rebounded, thanks to regrowth of plentiful food sources,<ref name="scholarworks.umass.edu"/> abandonment of farmland, better land management, clean-up of pollution, and natural dispersal from the [[Canadian Maritimes]] and [[Quebec]]. South of the Canada–US border, [[Maine]] has most of the population with a 2012 headcount of about 76,000 moose.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.pressherald.com/news/Survey-shows-Maine-has-about-76000-moose.html |title= Survey estimates Maine has 76,000 moose |publisher= The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram |access-date= November 9, 2012 |date= September 7, 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131202223228/http://www.pressherald.com/news/Survey-shows-Maine-has-about-76000-moose.html |archive-date= December 2, 2013 |url-status= live |df= mdy-all }}</ref> Dispersals from Maine over the years have resulted in healthy, growing populations each in [[Vermont]] and [[New Hampshire]], notably near bodies of water and as high up as {{cvt|3,000|ft|order=flip}} above sea level in the mountains. In [[Massachusetts]], moose had gone extinct by 1870, but re-colonized the state in the 1960s, with the population expanding from Vermont and New Hampshire; by 2010, the population was estimated at 850–950.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1791&context=theses |title=Status, Movements, and Habitat Use of Moose in Massachusetts |last=Wattles |first=David |publisher=University of Massachusetts MS thesis |year=2011 |access-date=November 22, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202232721/http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1791&context=theses |archive-date=December 2, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Moose reestablished populations in eastern [[New York (state)|New York]] and [[Connecticut]] and appeared headed south towards the [[Catskill Mountains]], a former habitat.<ref>[http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/wildlife/living/living_with_moose.htm Living With Moose] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100608001901/http://www.mass.gov/dfwele/dfw/wildlife/living/living_with_moose.htm |date=June 8, 2010 }}. Mass.gov (September 20, 2007). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref><ref>[http://www.maine.gov/ifw/licenses_permits/lotteries/moose/index.htm Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife – Moose Hunting Permits] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015152942/http://www.maine.gov/ifw/licenses_permits/lotteries/moose/index.htm |date=October 15, 2007 }}. Maine.gov. Retrieved on January 9, 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.ct.gov/dep/lib/dep/wildlife/pdf_files/outreach/connecticut_wildlife_magazine/cwso04.pdf Connecticut Wildlife Sep/Oct 2004] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811104345/http://ct.gov/dep/lib/dep/wildlife/pdf_files/outreach/connecticut_wildlife_magazine/cwso04.pdf |date=August 11, 2010 }}. (PDF). Retrieved on January 9, 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.cpbn.org/article/moose-are-loose Moose are on the Loose - Connecticut Public Broadcasting Network] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622071458/https://www.cpbn.org/article/moose-are-loose |date=June 22, 2010 }}. Cpbn.org. Retrieved on January 9, 2011.</ref><ref>[https://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0214/p13s02-sten.html Forests lure moose to Massachusetts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101108201818/http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0214/p13s02-sten.html |date=November 8, 2010 }}. The Christian Science Monitor (February 14, 2007). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref><ref name="defenders.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.defenders.org/newsroom/defenders_magazine/winter_2007/moose_in_a_mess.php |title=Moose in a Mess? - Defenders of Wildlife |access-date=August 20, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100804222937/http://www.defenders.org/newsroom/defenders_magazine/winter_2007/moose_in_a_mess.php |archive-date=August 4, 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/6964.html|title=Moose|publisher=NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation|website=Dec.ny.gov|date=July 6, 1999|access-date=January 9, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728023814/http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/6964.html|archive-date=July 28, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the Midwest U.S., moose are primarily limited to the upper [[Great Lakes]] region, but strays, primarily immature males, have been found as far south as eastern Iowa.<ref>{{cite news|last=Franzman|first=Dave|title=A Moose Still on the Loose in Eastern Iowa|url=https://kcrg.com/news/local/A-Moose-Still-on-the-Loose-in-Eastern-Iowa-234643041.html|access-date=December 6, 2013|newspaper=KCRG News 9|date=December 5, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209012754/http://www.kcrg.com/news/local/A-Moose-Still-on-the-Loose-in-Eastern-Iowa-234643041.html|archive-date=December 9, 2013}}</ref> For unknown reasons, the moose population is declining rapidly in the Midwest.<ref name="Robbins"/>

Moose were successfully introduced on [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] in 1878 and 1904,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coastalsafari.com/MOOSE.htm|title=tm Moose|website=Newfoundland Coastal Safari|access-date=February 6, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110111170038/http://www.coastalsafari.com/MOOSE.htm|archive-date=January 11, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> where they are now the dominant [[ungulate]], and somewhat less successfully on [[Anticosti Island]] in the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]].{{citation needed|date= June 2021}}
<gallery heights="160px" mode="packed">
File:Alaskan moose pair (6862339335).jpg|Cow and bull moose
File:Cow moose.jpg|Cow moose
File:Alces alces (juvenile).jpg|Moose calf
</gallery>

====Decline in population====
Since the 1990s, moose populations have declined dramatically in much of [[Temperate climate|temperate]] North America, although they remain stable in [[Arctic]] and [[subarctic]] regions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/moose-die-off-not-seen-in-yukon-where-populations-stable-1.2055719|title='Moose die-off' not seen in Yukon, where populations stable|date=October 16, 2013|work=cbc.ca|access-date=December 15, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230234825/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/moose-die-off-not-seen-in-yukon-where-populations-stable-1.2055719|archive-date=December 30, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The exact causes of specific die-offs are not determined, but most documented mortality events were due to wolf predation, bacterial infection due to injuries sustained from predators, and [[parasite]]s from [[white-tailed deer]] to which moose have not developed a natural defense, such as [[liver fluke]]s, [[Parelaphostrongylus tenuis|brain worms]] and [[winter tick]] infestations.<ref name="Robbins"/><ref>{{cite web |author= credits [[Hari Sreenivasan]] |title= What's devastating the wild moose population in New England? |work= PBS Newshour |access-date= April 8, 2014 |date= April 7, 2014 |url= https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/alarming-decline-wild-moose-new-hampshire/ |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140408100853/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/alarming-decline-wild-moose-new-hampshire/ |archive-date= April 8, 2014 |url-status= live }}</ref> Predation of moose calves by brown bear is also significant.<ref>Brockman, Christopher J., William B. Collins, Jeffery M. Welker, Donald E. Spalinger, and Bruce W. Dale. "Determining kill rates of ungulate calves by brown bears using neck-mounted cameras." ''Wildlife Society Bulletin'' '''41''', no. 1 (2017): 88-97.</ref> Landscape change from salvage logging of forest damage caused by the mountain pine beetle has resulted in greater foraging in logged areas by female moose, and this is the lead hypothesis as to why the moose population is declining in eastern North American forests, as this likely leads to increased predation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Francis |first1=Alexandra L. |last2=Procter |first2=Chris |last3=Kuzyk |first3=Gerald |last4=Fisher |first4=Jason T. |title=Female Moose Prioritize Forage Over Mortality Risk in Harvested Landscapes |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |date=January 2021 |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=156–168 |doi=10.1002/jwmg.21963|bibcode=2021JWMan..85..156F |s2cid=226361594 }}</ref> An alternate hypotheses among biologists for generalized, non-hunting declines in moose populations at the southern extent of their range is increasing heat stress brought on by the rapid seasonal temperature upswings as a result of [[Global warming|human-induced climate change]].<ref name="scientific american article on moose decline in minnesota">{{cite news |last= Cusick |first= Daniel |title= Rapid Climate Changes Turn North Woods into Moose Graveyard |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/rapid-climate-changes-turn-north-woods-into-moose-graveyard/ |access-date= January 8, 2018 |work= Scientific American |publisher= Springer Nature |date= May 18, 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180108121953/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/rapid-climate-changes-turn-north-woods-into-moose-graveyard/ |archive-date= January 8, 2018 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Biologists studying moose populations typically use warm-season, heat-stress thresholds of between {{cvt|14|and|24|°C}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCann |first1=N.P. |last2=Moen |first2=R.A. |last3=Harris |first3=T.R. |title=Warm-season heat stress in moose (''Alces alces'') |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |date=October 30, 2013 |volume=91 |issue=12 |pages=893–898 |doi=10.1139/cjz-2013-0175 |bibcode=2013CaJZ...91..893M |url=http://www.d.umn.edu/biology/documents/Moen1.pdf |access-date=January 8, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113070553/http://www.d.umn.edu/biology/documents/Moen1.pdf |archive-date=November 13, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the minor average temperature increase of 0.83–1.11&nbsp;°C (1.5–2&nbsp;°F), over the last 100 years, has resulted in milder winters that induce favorable conditions for ticks, parasites and other invasive species to flourish within the southern range of moose habitat in North America.<ref name="scientific american article on moose decline in minnesota"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Rempel |first1=Robert S. |title= Effects of climate change on moose populations: Exploring the response horizon through biometric and systems models |journal= Ecological Modelling |date=September 24, 2011 |volume=222 |issue=18 |pages= 3355–3365 |doi= 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2011.07.012 |bibcode=2011EcMod.222.3355R }}</ref> The moose population in New Hampshire fell from 7,500 in the early 2000s to a 2014 estimate of 4,000 and in Vermont the numbers were down to 2,200{{when|date=November 2020}} from a high of 5,000 animals in 2005. Much of the decline has been attributed to the winter tick, which, between 2017 and 2019, accounted for 74% of all winter mortality and 91% of winter calf deaths in Vermont.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Debow |first1=Jacob |last2=Blouin |first2=Joshua |last3=Rosenblatt |first3=Elias |last4=Alexander |first4=Cedric |last5=Gieder |first5=Katherina |last6=Cottrell |first6=Walter |last7=Murdoch |first7=James |last8=Donovan |first8=Therese |date=2021-08-02 |title=Effects of Winter Ticks and Internal Parasites on Moose Survival in Vermont, USA |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=85 |issue=7 |pages=1423–1439 |doi=10.1002/jwmg.22101 |s2cid=236985989 |issn=0022-541X|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021JWMan..85.1423D }}</ref> Moose with heavy tick infections will rub their fur down to the skin raw trying to get the ticks off, making them look white when their outer coat rubs off. Locals call them ghost moose.<ref>{{cite web |last= Kusnetz |first= Nicholas |url= https://insideclimatenews.org/news/24052017/climate-change-ticks-killing-new-england-moose-hunters |title= Climate Change Is Killing New England's Moose. Can Hunters Save Them? |publisher= InsideClimate News |date= May 29, 2017 |access-date= June 4, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180520124800/https://insideclimatenews.org/news/24052017/climate-change-ticks-killing-new-england-moose-hunters |archive-date= May 20, 2018 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/01/13/winter-ticks-exact-heavy-toll-new-england-moose/PmpQ3QAHm9C1imAxkzMhDM/story.html |title=Ticks are killing 70 percent of moose calves across Maine, N.H. |newspaper=The Boston Globe |date=January 13, 2017 |access-date=June 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622165038/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/01/13/winter-ticks-exact-heavy-toll-new-england-moose/PmpQ3QAHm9C1imAxkzMhDM/story.html |archive-date=June 22, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.pri.org/stories/2017-03-18/moose-new-england-face-grisly-deaths-tick-infestations |title= Moose in New England face grisly deaths from tick infestations |publisher= Pri.org |date= March 18, 2017 |access-date= June 4, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180520124651/https://www.pri.org/stories/2017-03-18/moose-new-england-face-grisly-deaths-tick-infestations |archive-date= May 20, 2018 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= MacQuarrie |first= Brian |url= https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/01/13/winter-ticks-exact-heavy-toll-new-england-moose/PmpQ3QAHm9C1imAxkzMhDM/story.html |title= Ticks devastate Maine, N.H. moose populations |work= [[The Boston Globe]] |date= January 13, 2017 |access-date= January 16, 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240729125757/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2017/01/13/winter-ticks-exact-heavy-toll-new-england-moose/PmpQ3QAHm9C1imAxkzMhDM/story.html |archive-date= 2024-07-29 |url-status= live }}</ref> Loss of the insulating winter coat through attempts to rid the moose of winter tick increases the risk of hypothermia in winter.<ref>Samuel, W. M. "Grooming by moose (''Alces alces'') infested with the winter tick, Dermacentor albipictus (Acari): a mechanism for premature loss of winter hair." ''Canadian Journal of Zoology'' '''69''', no. 5 (1991): 1255-1260.</ref>