Editing Mind (section)

== Fields and methods of inquiry ==
Various fields of inquiry study the mind, including psychology, neuroscience, philosophy, and cognitive science. They differ from each other in the aspects of mind they investigate and the [[Methodology|methods]] they employ.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pashler|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lu3aMe6kRowC&pg=PR29 xxix–xxx]}} | {{harvnb|Friedenberg|Silverman|Spivey|2022|pp=xix, 12–13}} }}</ref> The study of the mind poses various problems since it is difficult to directly examine, manipulate, and measure it. Trying to circumvent this problem by investigating the brain comes with new challenges of its own, mainly because of the brain's complexity as a neural network consisting of billions of neurons, each with up to 10,000 links to other neurons.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Friedenberg|Silverman|Spivey|2022|p=1}} | {{harvnb|Uttal|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lAyVX1KVI1oC&pg=PA1 1–4]}} }}</ref>

=== Psychology ===
{{main|Psychology}}

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. It investigates conscious and unconscious mental phenomena, including perception, memory, feeling, thought, decision, intelligence, and [[personality]]. It is further interested in their outward manifestation in the form of observable behavioral patterns, studying how these patterns depend on external circumstances and are shaped by learning.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gross|2020|pp=1–3}} | {{harvnb|Friedenberg|Silverman|Spivey|2022|pp=15–16}} }}</ref> Psychology is a wide discipline that includes many subfields. [[Cognitive psychology]] is interested in higher-order mental activities like thinking, problem-solving, reasoning, and concept formation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dawson|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QGeEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161–162]}} | {{harvnb|Gross|2020|pp=4–6}} }}</ref> [[Biological psychology]] seeks to understand the underlying mechanisms on the physiological level and how they depend on genetic transmission and the environment.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Higgs|Cooper|Lee|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rkewDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3–4]}} | {{harvnb|Gross|2020|pp=4–8}} }}</ref> [[Developmental psychology]] studies the development of the mind from childhood to old age while [[social psychology]] examines the influence of social contexts on mind and behavior.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gross|2020|pp=4–6}} | {{harvnb|Thornton|Gliga|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_h9HEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 35]}} | {{harvnb|Sharma|Sharma|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8k7kK_J_MM4C&pg=PA7 7–9]}} }}</ref> [[Personality psychology]] investigates personality, exploring how characteristic patterns of thought, feeling, and behavior develop and vary among individuals.<ref>{{harvnb|American Psychological Association|2018|loc=[https://dictionary.apa.org/personality § Personality], [https://dictionary.apa.org/personality-psychology § Personality Psychology]}}</ref> Further subfields include [[comparative psychology|comparative]], [[clinical psychology|clinical]], [[educational psychology|educational]], [[occupational psychology|occupational]], and [[neuropsychology]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gross|2020|pp=4–8}}</ref> As a scientific discipline, [[History of psychology|psychology emerged]] at the end of the 19th century from the experimental work of [[Wilhelm Wundt]] (1832–1920). Early schools of thought included [[Structuralism (psychology)|structuralism]], [[psychoanalysis]], [[Gestalt psychology]], [[Functional psychology|functionalism]], and [[behaviorism]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Nairne|2011|pp=11–14}} | {{harvnb|Bernstein|Nash|2006|pp=10–13}} }}</ref>

Psychologists use a great variety of methods to study the mind. Experimental approaches set up a controlled situation, either in the laboratory or the field, in which they modify [[independent variable]]s and measure their effects on [[dependent variable]]s.{{efn|[[Psychometrics]] examines how to measure the mental attributes or psychological constructs underlying the variables. For example, [[IQ tests]] are one way to quantify intelligence.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Nairne|2011|pp=313, 322–323}} | {{harvnb|American Psychological Association|2018|loc=[https://dictionary.apa.org/psychometrics § Psychometrics]}} }}</ref>}} This approach makes it possible to identify [[Causality|causal relations]] between the variables. For example, to determine whether people with similar interests (independent variable) are more likely to become friends (dependent variable), participants in a study could be paired with either similar or dissimilar participants. After giving the pairs time to interact, it is assessed whether the members of similar pairs have more positive attitudes toward one another than the members of dissimilar pairs.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hood|2013|pp=1314–1315}} | {{harvnb|Dumont|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MP5X2SK2DCgC&pg=PA17 17, 48]}} | {{harvnb|Howitt|Cramer|2011|pp=16–17}} }}</ref>

[[Correlation]]al methods examine the strength of association between two variables without establishing a causal relationship between them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dumont|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MP5X2SK2DCgC&pg=PA17 17, 48]}} | {{harvnb|Howitt|Cramer|2011|pp=11–12}} }}</ref> The [[Survey (human research)|survey method]] presents participants with a list of questions aimed at eliciting information about their mental attitudes, behavior, and other relevant factors. It analyzes how participants respond to questions and how answers to different questions correlate with one another.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Howitt|Cramer|2011|pp=232–233}} | {{harvnb|Dumont|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MP5X2SK2DCgC&pg=PA27 27–28]}} }}</ref> Surveys usually have a large number of participants in contrast to [[case studies]], which focus on an in-depth examination of a single subject or a small group of subjects, often to examine rare phenomena or explore new fields.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Howitt|Cramer|2011|pp=232–233, 294–295}} | {{harvnb|Dumont|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MP5X2SK2DCgC&pg=PA29 29–30]}} }}</ref> Further methods include [[longitudinal studies]], [[naturalistic observation]], and [[Phenomenology (psychology)|phenomenological]] description of experience.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Howitt|Cramer|2011|pp=220–221, 383–384}} | {{harvnb|Dumont|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MP5X2SK2DCgC&pg=PA28 28]}} }}</ref>

=== Neuroscience ===
{{main|Neuroscience}}

[[File:1206 FMRI.jpg|thumb|alt=fMRI image showing the brain from a top view with active areas colored in orange|upright=0.7|[[Functional magnetic resonance imaging]] is a neuroimaging technique to detect brain areas with increased neural activity (shown in orange).<ref>{{harvnb|Scharff|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mqcvrd7rKc0C&pg=PA270 270–271]}}</ref>]]

Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system. Its primary focus is the [[central nervous system]] and the brain in particular, but it also investigates the [[peripheral nervous system]] mainly responsible for connecting the central nervous system to the limbs and organs. Neuroscience examines the implementation of mental phenomena on a physiological basis, covering various levels of analysis. On the small scale, it studies the molecular and cellular basis of the mind, dealing with the constitution of and interaction between individual neurons. On the large scale, it analyzes the architecture of the brain as a whole and its division into regions with different functions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Friedenberg|Silverman|Spivey|2022|pp=17–18}} | {{harvnb|Hellier|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FOTNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR31 31–32]}} | {{harvnb|Marcus|Jacobson|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=II3lBwAAQBAJ&pg=SA1-PA3 3]}} }}</ref> The [[History of neuroscience|study of the nervous system began]] in the ancient period and evolved through the centuries, including [[anatomical]] insights through dissections and speculative theories about brain functions. Neuroscience was recognized as a distinct academic discipline in the 20th century as technological advances, like the development of [[neuroimaging]] techniques, revolutionized the field.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Getz|2023|pp=1–2, 7–8}} | {{harvnb|Cowan|Harter|Kandel|2000|pp=343–344}} }}</ref>

In modern neuroscience, neuroimaging techniques are of particular importance as the main research methods of neuroscientists. [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI) measures changes in the [[magnetic field]] of the brain associated with blood flow. Areas of increased blood flow indicate that the corresponding brain region is particularly active. [[Positron emission tomography]] (PET) uses radioactive substances to detect a range of [[Metabolism|metabolic changes]] in the brain. [[Electroencephalography]] (EEG) measures the electrical activity of the brain, usually by placing [[electrode]]s on the scalp and measuring the voltage differences between them. These techniques are often employed to measure brain changes under particular circumstances, for example, while engaged in a specific cognitive task. Important insights are also gained from patients and [[laboratory animal]]s with [[brain damage]], helping neuroscientists understand the function of the damaged area and how its absence affects the remaining brain.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Friedenberg|Silverman|Spivey|2022|pp=17–18}} | {{harvnb|Engelmann|Mulckhuyse|Ting|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uC2jDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159 159]}} | {{harvnb|Scharff|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mqcvrd7rKc0C&pg=PA270 270–271]}} | {{harvnb|Hellier|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FOTNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR31 31–32]}} }}</ref>

=== Philosophy of mind ===
{{main|Philosophy of mind}}

Philosophy of mind examines the nature of mental phenomena and their relation to the physical world. It seeks to understand the "mark of the mental", that is, the features that all mental states have in common. It further investigates the essence of different types of mental phenomena, such as [[belief]]s, [[desire]]s, emotions, [[intentionality]], and consciousness while exploring how they are related to one another. Philosophy of mind also examines solutions to the mind–body problem, like dualism, idealism, and physicalism, and assesses arguments for and against them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stich|Warfield|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NEGK_ZStddkC&pg=PR9 ix–x]}} | {{harvnb|Mandik|2014|pp=1–4, 14}} | {{harvnb|Kind|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oDhjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2010-IA3 Lead Section]}} | {{harvnb|Adams|Beighley|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DlU6CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 54]}} }}</ref> It asks whether people have a [[free will]] or the ability to choose their actions, and how this ability contrasts with the idea that [[Determinism|everything is determined by preceding causes]].<ref>{{harvnb|Timpe|loc=§ Lead Section, § 3. Free Will and Determinism}}</ref>

[[File:Braininvat.jpg|thumb|alt=Diagram of a brain in a vat that is connected to a computer|The [[brain in a vat]] is a thought experiment to examine the nature of the mind and its relation to matter. It explores how a brain would experience reality if a supercomputer fed it the same electrical stimulation a normal brain receives.<ref>{{harvnb|Hickey|loc=Lead section}}</ref>]]

While philosophers of mind also include empirical considerations in their inquiry, they differ from fields like psychology and neuroscience by giving significantly more emphasis to non-empirical forms of inquiry. One such method is [[conceptual analysis]], which aims to clarify the meaning of concepts, like ''mind'' and ''intention'', by decomposing them to identify their semantic parts.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stich|Warfield|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NEGK_ZStddkC&pg=PR10 ix–xi]}} | {{harvnb|Shaffer|2015|pp=555–556}} | {{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy § Philosophical Methods]}} }}</ref> [[Thought experiment]]s are often used to evoke [[intuition]]s about abstract theories to assess their coherence and plausibility. To do so, philosophers imagine a situation relevant to a theory and employ [[counterfactual thinking]] to assess the possible consequences of this theory. Influential thought experiments include [[Mary the super-scientist|Mary the color scientist]], [[philosophical zombies]], and [[brain in a vat]]-scenarios.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brown|Fehige|2019|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Goffi|Roux|2011|pp=165, 168–169}} }}</ref> Because of the subjective nature of the mind, the [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenological method]] is also commonly used to analyze the structure of consciousness by describing experience from the first-person perspective.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smith|2018|loc=Lead Section, § 1. What Is Phenomenology?, §6. Phenomenology and Philosophy of Mind}} | {{harvnb|Smith|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6a03AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT359 335–336]}} }}</ref> The philosophical discussion of the mind has a long history, reaching back to [[Ancient history|antiquity]]. Influential contributions were made by [[Plato]] ({{circa|428–347 BCE}}), [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE), [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650), [[David Hume]] (1711–1776), [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804), [[William James]] (1842–1910), and [[Gilbert Ryle]] (1900–1976).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Jaworski|2011|pp=359, 362, 371}} | {{harvnb|Flanagan|2005|pp=603–604}} | {{harvnb|Tanney|2022|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>

=== Cognitive science ===
{{main|Cognitive science}}

Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of mental representations and processes. It aims to overcome the challenge of understanding something as complex as the mind by integrating research from diverse fields ranging from psychology and neuroscience to philosophy, [[linguistics]], and [[artificial intelligence]]. Unlike these disciplines, it is not a unified field but a collaborative effort. One difficulty in synthesizing their insights is that each of these disciplines explores the mind from a different perspective and level of abstraction while using different research methods to arrive at its conclusion.<ref name="auto">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Friedenberg|Silverman|Spivey|2022|pp=2–3}} | {{harvnb|Bermúdez|2014|pp=3, 85}} | {{harvnb|Thagard|2023|loc=Lead section, § 3. Representation and Computation}} }}</ref> Cognitive science emerged in the second half of the 20th century as researchers from various disciplines began to examine how mental processes represent the world and transform information. The field expanded in the 1980s following advances in neuroimaging to include a [[biological]] perspective on how computational processes are implemented by the brain.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bermúdez|2014|pp=5–6, 29–30, 59–60}} | {{harvnb|Thagard|2023|loc=Lead section, § 1. History}} }}</ref>

To incorporate insights from diverse disciplines, cognitive science relies on a unified conceptualization of minds as [[Information processing (psychology)|information processors]]. This means that mental processes are understood as computations that retrieve, transform, store, and transmit information.<ref name="auto"/> For example, perception retrieves sensory information from the environment and transforms it to extract meaningful patterns that can be used in other mental processes, such as planning and decision-making.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Friedenberg|Silverman|Spivey|2022|p=2}} | {{harvnb|Spruit|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8dM6T86QreYC&pg=PA203 203]}} }}</ref> Cognitive science relies on different levels of description to analyze cognitive processes. The most abstract level focuses on the basic problem the process is supposed to solve and the reasons why the organism needs to solve it. The intermediate level seeks to uncover the [[algorithm]] as a formal step-by-step procedure to solve the problem. The most concrete level asks how the algorithm is [[Implementation|implemented]] through physiological changes on the level of the brain.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Friedenberg|Silverman|Spivey|2022|pp=8–9}} | {{harvnb|Bermúdez|2014|pp=122–123}} }}</ref> Another methodology is to analyze the mind as a complex system composed of individual subsystems that can be studied independently of one another.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bermúdez|2014|pp=85, 129–130}} | {{harvnb|Koenig|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gi-PAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA274 274]}} }}</ref>