Editing Medicine (section)

=== Middle Ages ===
[[File:Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah.JPG|thumb|left|A manuscript of ''[[Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah]]'' by [[Ali al-Ridha]], the eighth Imam of [[Twelver|Shia Muslims]]. The text says: "Golden dissertation in medicine which is sent by Imam Ali ibn Musa al-Ridha, peace be upon him, to [[al-Ma'mun]]."]]

The concept of hospital as institution to offer medical care and possibility of a cure for the patients due to the ideals of Christian charity, rather than just merely a place to die, appeared in the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Lindberg | first = David | date = 1992 | title = The Beginnings of Western Science | url = https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest00lind | url-access = registration | publisher = University of Chicago Press | page = [https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest00lind/page/349 349] | isbn = 978-0-226-48231-6 }}</ref>

Although the concept of [[uroscopy]] was known to Galen, he did not see the importance of using it to localize the disease. It was under the Byzantines with physicians such of [[Theophilus Protospatharius]] that they realized the potential in uroscopy to determine disease in a time when no microscope or stethoscope existed. That practice eventually spread to the rest of Europe.<ref>{{cite book | last = Prioreschi | first = Plinio | date = 2004 | title = A History of Medicine: Byzantine and Islamic medicine. | publisher = Horatius Press | pages = 146 }}</ref>

After 750 CE, the Muslim world had the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Sushruta translated into [[Arabic]], and [[Islamic medicine|Islamic physicians]] engaged in some significant medical research. Notable Islamic medical pioneers include the Persian [[polymath]], [[Avicenna]], who, along with Imhotep and Hippocrates, has also been called the "father of medicine".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Becka J | title = [The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture. Abu Ali ibn Sina (980–1037)] | language = cs | journal = Casopis Lekaru Ceskych | volume = 119 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–23 | date = January 1980 | pmid = 6989499 }}</ref> He wrote ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' which became a standard medical text at many medieval European [[University|universities]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hcs.osu.edu/hort/history/023.html |title=Avicenna 980–1037 |publisher= Hcs.osu.edu |access-date=19 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007070250/http://hcs.osu.edu/hort/history/023.html |archive-date=7 October 2008 }}</ref> considered one of the most famous books in the history of medicine.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-92902/The-Canon-of-Medicine |title="The Canon of Medicine" (work by Avicenna) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |year=2008 |access-date=11 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528230506/https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-92902/The-Canon-of-Medicine |archive-date=28 May 2008 }}</ref> Others include [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi|Abulcasis]],<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Ahmad Z | title = Al-Zahrawi – The Father of Surgery|journal=ANZ Journal of Surgery|year=2007|volume=77|issue=Suppl. 1|doi=10.1111/j.1445-2197.2007.04130_8.x|page=A83| s2cid = 57308997}}</ref> [[Ibn Zuhr|Avenzoar]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Abdel-Halim RE | title = Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology. A study and translations from his book Al-Mukhtar | journal = Saudi Medical Journal | volume = 27 | issue = 11 | pages = 1631–1641 | date = November 2006 | pmid = 17106533 }}</ref> [[Ibn al-Nafis]],<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/78110223/Traditional-Medicine-Among-Gulf-Arabs |year=2004 |title=Chairman's Reflections: Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting |journal=Heart Views |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=74–85 [80] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308101134/http://www.scribd.com/doc/78110223/Traditional-Medicine-Among-Gulf-Arabs |archive-date=8 March 2013 }}</ref> and [[Averroes]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Martín-Araguz A, Bustamante-Martínez C, Fernández-Armayor Ajo V, Moreno-Martínez JM | title = [Neuroscience in Al Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine] | language = es | journal = Revista de Neurología | volume = 34 | issue = 9 | pages = 877–892 | date = 1 May 2002 | pmid = 12134355 | doi=10.33588/rn.3409.2001382}}</ref> [[Persians|Persian]] physician [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi|Rhazes]]<ref name="tschanz-2003">{{cite journal | last = Tschanz | first = David W. | year = 2003 | title = Arab(?) Roots of European Medicine | journal = Heart Views | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | url = http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199703/the.arab.roots.of.european.medicine.htm | access-date = 9 June 2013 | archive-date = 3 May 2004 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040503004153/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199703/the.arab.roots.of.european.medicine.htm | url-status = live }} [http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst372/readings/tschanz.html copy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041130161059/http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst372/readings/tschanz.html |date=30 November 2004 }}</ref> was one of the first to question the Greek theory of [[humorism]], which nevertheless remained influential in both medieval Western and medieval Islamic medicine.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pormann | first1 = Peter E. | last2 = Savage-Smith | first2 = Emilie | author2-link=Emilie Savage-Smith |year=2007 | chapter = On the dominance of the Greek humoral theory, which was the basis for the practice of bloodletting |title=Medieval Islamic medicine |publisher=Georgetown University |location=Washington DC |pages=10, 43–45 |ol=12911905W}}</ref> Some volumes of Rhazes's work ''Al-Mansuri'', namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in European universities.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | publisher = Springer| pages = 155–156| last = Iskandar| first = Albert | title = Al-Rāzī | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures| year = 2006| edition=2nd}}</ref> Additionally, he has been described as a doctor's doctor,<ref>{{cite book | last = Ganchy | first = Sally | title = Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology | url = https://archive.org/details/islamsciencemedi0000ganc | url-access = registration | location = New York | publisher = Rosen Pub. | date = 2008 }}</ref> the father of pediatrics,<ref name="tschanz-2003" /><ref name="elgood-2010">{{cite book|last1=Elgood |first1= Cyril|title=A Medical History of Persia and The Eastern Caliphate|date=2010|publisher=Cambridge|location=London|isbn=978-1-108-01588-2|pages=202–203|edition=1st|quote=By writing a monograph on 'Diseases in Children' he may also be looked upon as the father of paediatrics.}}</ref> and a pioneer of ophthalmology. For example, he was the first to recognize the reaction of the eye's pupil to light.<ref name="elgood-2010" /> The Persian [[Bimaristan]] hospitals were an early example of [[public hospital]]s.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last= Micheau |first=Françoise |date=1996 |entry=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East |veditors=Rashed R, Morelon R |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |pages=991–992 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | first = Peter | last = Barrett |year=2004 |title=Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding |page=18 |publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-567-08969-4}}</ref>

In Europe, [[Charlemagne]] decreed that a hospital should be attached to each cathedral and monastery and the historian [[Geoffrey Blainey]] likened the [[Catholic Church and health care|activities of the Catholic Church in health care]] during the Middle Ages to an early version of a welfare state: "It conducted hospitals for the old and orphanages for the young; hospices for the sick of all ages; places for the lepers; and hostels or inns where pilgrims could buy a cheap bed and meal". It supplied food to the population during famine and distributed food to the poor. This welfare system the church funded through collecting taxes on a large scale and possessing large farmlands and estates. The [[Benedictine]] order was noted for setting up hospitals and infirmaries in their monasteries, growing medical herbs and becoming the chief medical care givers of their districts, as at the great [[Abbey of Cluny]]. The Church also established a network of [[cathedral schools]] and universities where medicine was studied. The [[Schola Medica Salernitana]] in Salerno, looking to the learning of [[Greeks|Greek]] and [[Arab]] physicians, grew to be the finest medical school in medieval Europe.<ref>{{cite book | last = Blainey | first = Geoffrey |year=2011 |title=A Short History of Christianity |publisher=Penguin Viking |pages=214–215 |oclc=793902685 |title-link=A Short History of Christianity }}</ref>

[[File:SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Siena's [[Santa Maria della Scala (Siena)|Santa Maria della Scala Hospital]], one of Europe's oldest hospitals. During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church established universities to revive the study of sciences, drawing on the learning of Greek and Arab physicians in the study of medicine.]]

However, the fourteenth and fifteenth century [[Black Death]] devastated both the Middle East and Europe, and it has even been argued that Western Europe was generally more effective in recovering from the pandemic than the Middle East.{{efn|Michael Dols has shown that the Black Death was much more commonly believed by European authorities than by Middle Eastern authorities to be contagious; as a result, flight was more commonly counseled, and in urban Italy quarantines were organized on a much wider level than in urban Egypt or Syria.<ref>{{cite book | first = Michael W. | last = Dols |title=The Black Death in the Middle East |publisher=Princeton |year=1977 |pages=119, 285–290 |oclc=2296964 }}</ref>}} In the early modern period, important early figures in medicine and anatomy emerged in Europe, including [[Gabriele Falloppio]] and [[William Harvey]].

The major shift in medical thinking was the gradual rejection, especially during the [[Black Death]] in the 14th and 15th centuries, of what may be called the "traditional authority" approach to science and medicine. This was the notion that because some prominent person in the past said something must be so, then that was the way it was, and anything one observed to the contrary was an anomaly (which was paralleled by a similar shift in European society in general – see [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]]'s rejection of [[Ptolemy]]'s theories on astronomy). Physicians like [[Vesalius]] improved upon or disproved some of the theories from the past. The main tomes used both by medicine students and expert physicians were [[Materia Medica]] and [[Pharmacopoeia]].

[[Andreas Vesalius]] was the author of ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'', an important book on [[human anatomy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ceb.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/books.htm |title=Page through a virtual copy of Vesalius's ''De Humanis Corporis Fabrica'' |publisher=Archive.nlm.nih.gov |access-date=21 April 2012 |archive-date=11 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011220907/http://ceb.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/books.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Bacteria and microorganisms were first observed with a microscope by [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]] in 1676, initiating the scientific field [[microbiology]].<ref>{{cite book |veditors= Madigan M, Martinko J | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 11th | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-13-144329-7 }}</ref> Independently from Ibn al-Nafis, [[Michael Servetus]] rediscovered the [[pulmonary circulation]], but this discovery did not reach the public because it was written down for the first time in the "Manuscript of Paris"<ref>[http://michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html Michael Servetus Research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113223851/http://www.michaelservetusresearch.com/ENGLISH/works.html |date=13 November 2012 }} Website with a graphical study on the Manuscript of Paris by Servetus</ref> in 1546, and later published in the theological work for which he paid with his life in 1553. Later this was described by [[Renaldus Columbus]] and [[Andrea Cesalpino]]. [[Herman Boerhaave]] is sometimes referred to as a "father of physiology" due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and textbook 'Institutiones medicae' (1708). [[Pierre Fauchard]] has been called "the father of modern [[dentistry]]".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lynch CD, O'Sullivan VR, McGillycuddy CT | title = Pierre Fauchard: the 'father of modern dentistry' | journal = British Dental Journal | volume = 201 | issue = 12 | pages = 779–781 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 17183395 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bdj.4814350 | doi-access = free }}</ref>