Editing Lead (section)

=== Classical era ===
Because silver was extensively used as a decorative material and an exchange medium, lead deposits came to be worked in Asia Minor from 3000&nbsp;BC; later, lead deposits were developed in the [[Aegean Islands|Aegean]] and [[Lavrio|Laurion]].{{sfn|Wood|Hsu|Bell|2021}} These three regions collectively dominated production of mined lead until {{Circa|1200&nbsp;BC}}.{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=5}} Beginning c. 2000&nbsp;BC, the [[Phoenicia]]ns worked deposits in the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian peninsula]]; by 1600&nbsp;BC, lead mining existed in [[Cyprus]], [[Greece]], and [[Sardinia]].{{sfn|United States Geological Survey|1973}}

[[File:Sling bullets BM GR1842.7-28.550 GR1851.5-7.11.jpg|thumb|right|Ancient Greek lead sling bullets with a winged thunderbolt molded on one side and the inscription {{lang|grc|ΔΕΞΑΙ}} ("take that") on the other side{{sfn|Lead sling bullet}}]]

[[Roman Republic|Rome's]] territorial expansion in Europe and across the Mediterranean, and its development of mining, led to it becoming the greatest producer of lead during the [[Classical antiquity|classical era]], with an estimated annual output peaking at 80,000 tonnes. Like their predecessors, the Romans obtained lead mostly as a by-product of silver smelting.{{sfn|Hong|Candelone|Patterson|Boutron|1994|pp=1841–1843}}{{sfn|de Callataÿ|2005|pp=361–372}} Lead mining occurred in [[central Europe]], [[Roman Britain|Britain]], [[Balkans]], [[Greece]], [[Anatolia]], [[Hispania]], the latter accounting for 40% of world production.{{sfn|Hong|Candelone|Patterson|Boutron|1994|pp=1841–1843}}
[[File:Bleiplatte von Magliano B.jpg|thumb|The [[Lead Plaque of Magliano]], Italy, bears an Etruscan inscription from mid-5th century BC.|alt=A vaguely round plate illuminated from a side to increase the contrast. The characters curl around the contour.]]
Lead tablets were commonly used as a material for letters.{{sfn|Ceccarelli|2013|p=35}} Lead coffins, cast in flat sand forms and with interchangeable motifs to suit the faith of the deceased, were used in ancient [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judea]].{{sfn|Ossuaries and Sarcophagi}} Lead was used to make sling bullets from the 5th century BC. In Roman times, lead sling bullets were amply used, and were effective at a distance of between 100 and 150 meters. The [[Balearic slinger|Balearic slingers]], used as mercenaries in Carthaginian and Roman armies, were famous for their shooting distance and accuracy.{{sfn|Calvo Rebollar|2019|p=45}}

[[File:Grosvenor Museums - Wasserröhren.jpg|thumb|left|Roman lead pipes{{efn|The [[Roman lead pipe inscription|inscription]] reads: "Made when the Emperor [[Vespasian]] was consul for the ninth term and the Emperor Titus was consul for the seventh term, when [[Gnaeus Iulius Agricola]] was imperial governor (of Britain)."}}|alt=Ancient pipes in a museum case]]

Lead was used for making water pipes in the [[Roman Empire]]; the [[Latin]] word for the metal, {{lang|la|plumbum}}, is the origin of the English word "[[plumbing]]". Its ease of working, its low melting point enabling the easy fabrication of completely waterproof welded joints, and its resistance to corrosion{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=6}} ensured its widespread use in other applications, including pharmaceuticals, roofing, currency, warfare.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|pp=179–184}}{{sfn|Bisel|Bisel|2002|pp=459–460}}{{sfn|Retief|Cilliers|2006|pp=149–151}} Writers of the time, such as [[Cato the Elder]], [[Columella]], and [[Pliny the Elder]], recommended lead (and lead-coated) vessels for the preparation of [[Grape syrup|sweeteners and preservatives]] added to wine and food. The lead conferred an agreeable taste due to the formation of "sugar of lead" ([[lead(II) acetate]]), whereas [[copper]] vessels imparted a bitter flavor through [[verdigris]] formation.{{sfn|Grout|2017}}<!--Grout's work, the Encyclopaedia Romana, is cited by other reliable sources e.g. Davies ME & Swain H 2010, Aspects of Roman history 82 BC--AD 14: A source-based approach, Routledge, p. 388; Bakken C 2013, Honey, olives, octopus: Adventures at the Greek table, University of California, p. 61; Tschen-Emmons JB 2015, Artefacts from ancient Rome, Greenwood, p. 302-->

{{Quote box
|quote = This metal was by far the most used material in classical antiquity, and it is appropriate to refer to the (Roman) Lead Age. Lead was to the Romans what plastic is to us.
|salign=right| source = Heinz Eschnauer and Markus Stoeppler<br />"Wine—An enological specimen bank", 1992{{sfn|Eschnauer|Stoeppler|1992|p=58}}
|bgcolor = Cornsilk
|quoted = 1
|width = 25em
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}}

The Roman author [[Vitruvius]] reported the [[Roman lead poisoning theory|health dangers of lead]]{{sfn|Hodge|1981|pp=486–491}}<ref>{{cite book |last1= Marcus Vitruvius Pollio |title={{transliteration|la|[[De architectura]]}}|date=1914 |orig-date=c. 15 BC| series=Book 8, 10–11 [[:Wikisource:Ten Books on Architecture/Book VIII|fulltext]]|author1-link=Marcus Vitruvius Pollio }}</ref> and modern writers have suggested that lead poisoning played a major role in the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|decline of the Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Gilfillan|1965|pp=53–60}}{{sfn|Nriagu|1983|pp=660–663}}{{efn|The fact that [[Julius Caesar]] fathered only one child, as well as the alleged sterility of his successor, [[Caesar Augustus]], have been attributed to lead poisoning.{{sfn|Frankenburg|2014|p=16}}}} Other researchers have criticized such claims, pointing out, for instance, that not all [[abdominal pain]] is caused by lead poisoning.{{sfn|Scarborough|1984}}{{sfn|Waldron|1985|pp=107–108}} According to archaeological research, Roman [[Pipe (fluid conveyance)|lead pipes]] increased lead levels in tap water but such an effect was "unlikely to have been truly harmful".{{sfn|Reddy|Braun|2010|p=1052}}{{sfn|Delile|Blichert-Toft|Goiran|Keay|2014|pp=6594–6599}} When lead poisoning did occur, victims were called "saturnine", dark and cynical, after the ghoulish father of the gods, [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]]. By association, lead was considered the father of all metals.{{sfn|Finger|2006|p=184}} Its status in Roman society was low as it was readily available{{sfn|Lewis|1985|p=15}} and cheap.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=183}}

==== Confusion with tin and antimony ====
Since the [[Bronze Age]], metallurgists and engineers have understood the difference between rare and valuable [[tin]], essential for alloying with copper to produce tough and corrosion resistant [[bronze]], and 'cheap and cheerful' lead. However, the nomenclature in some languages is similar.  Romans called lead {{lang|la|plumbum nigrum}} ("black lead"), and tin {{lang|la|plumbum candidum}} ("bright lead"). The association of lead and tin can be seen in other languages: the word {{lang|cs|olovo}} in [[Czech language|Czech]] translates to "lead", but in Russian, its [[cognate]] {{lang|ru|олово}} ({{lang|ru-Latn|olovo}}) means "tin".{{sfn|Polyanskiy|1986|p=8}} To add to the confusion, lead bore a close relation to antimony: both elements commonly occur as sulfides (galena and [[stibnite]]), often together. Pliny incorrectly wrote that stibnite would give lead on heating, instead of antimony.{{sfn|Thomson|1830|p=74}} In countries such as Turkey and India, the originally Persian name {{lang|fa-Latn|surma}} came to refer to either antimony sulfide or lead sulfide,{{sfn|Oxford English Dictionary|loc=surma}} and in some languages, such as Russian, gave its name to antimony ({{lang|ru|сурьма}}).{{sfn|Vasmer|1986–1987|loc=сурьма}}