Editing Khosrow I (section)

===War with the Byzantine Empire, 540–562===
[[File:Roman-Persian Frontier in Late Antiquity.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of the Byzantine–Sasanian frontier]]
{{Campaignbox Wars of Khosrow I}}

====Background====
In 539 Khosrow had originally attempted to gain a ''[[casus belli]]'' against the Byzantines by trying to take advantage of a disagreement between his [[Lakhmid]] clients and the Byzantine clients [[Ghassanids]], who both claimed ownership of the lands south of [[Palmyra]], near the old ''[[Strata Diocletiana]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Martindale|1992|p=112}}; {{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=102}}; {{harvnb|Shahîd|1995|pp=209–210}}.</ref> His attempt was, however, thwarted when the Byzantines successfully equivocated the problem.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=102}} Subsequently, Khosrow accused Justinian of trying to bribe the Lakhmid ruler [[al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man]] ({{reign|503|554}}) through his diplomat Summus, and also that he had emboldened some [[Huns]] to make incursions into Iran.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=102}} The Ghassanid ruler [[al-Harith ibn Jabalah]] ({{reign|528|569}}) invaded Mundhir's territory and carried off rich booty.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=102}} Khosrow complained to Justinian about this incident, and requested that the stolen riches be returned to him, including payment for the Arabs that had been killed during the attack.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=102-103}} His request was, however, ignored.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=103}} This incident, along with the support by an emissary from the [[Ostrogoth]] king [[Vitiges]], and the Armenians living in Byzantine territory being dissatisfied with their rule, encouraged Khosrow to renew the war against the Byzantines.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=102-103}} Justinian's ceaseless wars in [[North Africa]] and [[Italian Peninsula|Italy]] must have contributed to Khosrow's aspirations as well.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=102}} Justinian, informed of Khosrow's intention for war, tried to dissuade him, but to no avail.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=103}}

====Sasanian invasion of Syria====
In May 540, Khosrow invaded the domains of the Byzantines; he avoided the fortress of [[Circesium]], and instead approached [[Halabiye|Zenobia]], where he made a lukewarm attempt to persuade the fortress to surrender, which proved unsuccessful.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=103}} He then proceeded to [[Sura, Syria|Sura]] and killed its commander Arsaces in battle. Demoralized by the death of their commander, the residents sent their bishop to parley with Khosrow.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=103}} Feigning to accept the plea of the bishop, Khosrow took advantage of the occasion and captured the city, which was shortly sacked.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=103}} [[Germanus (cousin of Justinian I)|Germanus]], the cousin of Justinian, sent the bishop of [[Aleppo|Beroea]], Megas, to negotiate with Khosrow.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=103}} Regardless, Khosrow continued his expedition, threatening the city of [[Manbij|Hierapolis]], whose custodians swiftly paid him {{convert|2000|lbs|disp=or}} of silver to leave the city untouched.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=103}} After receiving additional pleas by Megas, Khosrow agreed to end his expedition in return for ten ''[[Quintal|centenaria]]''.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=103}} While Megas went back to [[Antioch]] to inform Germanus of Khosrow's demands, the latter approached Beroea, which he had sacked.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=103}} In June, Khosrow reached Antioch, where he offered its citizens to not attack the city in return for ten ''centenaria''. His offer was rejected, and as a result he captured and sacked the city.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=104}}

Justinian sued for peace, and made a treaty with Khosrow that the Iranians would withdraw back to their domains in return for a payment of 50 ''centenaria'' plus 5 ''centenaria'' extra each year.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=106}} Part of treaty also included that the Byzantine envoys were to be hostages of Khosrow as an assurance that the Byzantines would honor the agreement.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=106}} However, before departing, Khosrow went to the port of Antioch, [[Seleucia Pieria]], where he bathed in the [[Mediterranean Sea]].{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=106}} He then told the envoys that he wished to visit the city of [[Apamea, Syria|Apamea]] out of interest, which they reluctantly allowed him, with the condition that he would leave for his domains afterwards.<ref name="PROXI">Procopius, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16764/16764-h/16764-h.htm XI].</ref> There he held chariot races, where he made the Blue Faction—which was supported by Justinian—lose against the rival Greens.<ref name="PROXI" /> Khosrow extracted tribute from Apamea and other Byzantine towns, at which point Justinian called off his truce and prepared to send his commander [[Belisarius]] to move against the Sasanians.{{sfn|Frye|1984}}

====Lazic War====
{{main|Lazic War}}
{{Content|date=September 2022}}
[[File:Lazica in Late Antiquity.svg|thumb|Map of [[Lazica]]]]
In spring 541, Khosrow brought his army north to [[Lazica]] on request of the Lazic king [[Gubazes II of Lazica|Gubazes II]] to repel the Byzantines from his territory. The fortress of [[Petra, Lazica|Petra]] was afterwards [[Siege of Petra (541)|captured by Khosrow's forces]], and a protectorate was established over the country.{{sfn|Frye|1984}}<ref>{{harvnb|Martindale|1992|pp=559, 639}}; {{harvnb|Bury|1958|pp=101–102}}.</ref> At the same time, [[Belisarius]] arrived in Mesopotamia and [[Battle of Nisibis (541)|began besieging]] the city of [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]]. Although Belisarius had greatly outnumbered the city garrison, the city was too well fortified and he was forced to [[Siege of Sisauranon (541)|ravage the country]] around the Nisibis, subsequently getting recalled back west.{{sfn|Frye|1984}} After [[Battle of Anglon|successful campaigns]] in Armenia, Khosrow was encouraged once again to attack Syria. Khosrow turned south towards [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] and [[Siege of Edessa (544)|besieged the city]]. Edessa was now a much more important city than Antioch was, and the garrison which occupied the city was able to resist the siege.{{sfn|Frye|1984}} The Iranians were forced to retreat from Edessa, but were able to forge a five-year truce with the Byzantine Empire in 545.{{sfn|Frye|1984}} Three years into the five-year truce (548), rebellion against Sasanian control broke out in Lazica. In response, a Byzantine army was sent to support the people of Lazica, effectively ending the established truce and thus continuing the Lazic Wars.{{sfn|Frye|1984}}

Sometime later, Khosrow, who was keen to wrest Dara from Byzantine control, and would do so even if he risked to break the truce they had made regarding Mesopotamia, tried to capture it by tricking them; he sent one of highest officials, [[Izadgushasp]], as a diplomat to [[Constantinople]], but in reality the latter would stop by Dara, and with the aid of his large crew, he would seize the city. However, this plan was prevented by a former adviser of Belisarius named George, who demanded that if Izadgushasp should enter the city he should have only twenty members of his crew with him. Izadgushasp then left the city and continued his journey to Constantinople, where he was amicably welcomed by Justinian, who gave him some gifts.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=123}}

In 549 the previous truce between Justinian and Khosrow was disregarded and full war broke out once again between Iranians and Romans. The last major decisive battle of the Lazic wars came in 556 when Byzantine general Martin defeated a massive Sasanian force led by an Iranian ''nakhvaegan'' (field marshal).{{sfn|Farrokh|2007|p=236}} Negotiations between Khosrow and Justinian opened in 556, leading to the [[Fifty-Year Peace Treaty]] in 562 in which Iranians would leave Lazica in return for an annual payment of gold.{{sfn|Frye|1984}}

According to ancient historian Menander Protector, a minor official in Justinian's court, there were 12 points to the treaty, stated in the following passage:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sasanika.org/wp-content/uploads/Menander6-1.pdf |title=Meander Protector. ''Fragments 6.1-6.3''. Translated by R.C. Blockey, edited by Khodadad Rezakhani. |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104105/http://www.sasanika.org/wp-content/uploads/Menander6-1.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Centered pull quote| 1. Through the pass at the place called Tzon and through the Caspian Gates the
Persians shall not allow the Huns or Alans or other barbarians access to the Roman Empire, nor shall the Romans either in that area or on any other part of the Persian frontier send an army against the Persians.

2. The Saracen allies of both states shall themselves also abide by these agreements and those of the Persians shall not attack the Romans, nor those of the Romans the Persians.

3. Roman and Persian merchants of all kinds of goods, as well as similar tradesmen, shall conduct their business according to the established practice through the specified customs posts.

4. Ambassadors and all others using the public post to deliver messages, both those traveling to Roman and those to Persian territory, shall be honoured each according to his status and rank and shall receive the appropriate attention. They shall be sent back without delay, but shall be able to exchange the trade goods which they have brought without hindrance or any impost.

5. It is agreed that Saracen and all other barbarian merchants of either state shall not travel by strange roads but shall go by Nisibis and Daras, and shall not cross into foreign territory without official permission. But if they dare anything contrary to the agreement (that is to say, if they engage in tax-dodging, so-called), they shall be hunted down by the officers of the frontier and handed over for punishment together with the merchandise which they are carrying, whether Assyrian or Roman.

6. If anyone during the period of hostilities defected either from the Romans to the Persians or from the Persians to the Romans and if he should give himself up and wish to return to his home, he shall not be prevented from so doing and no obstacle shall be put in his way. But those who in time of peace defect and desert from one side to the other shall not be received, but every means shall be used to return them, even against their will, to those from whom they fled.

7. Those who complain that they have suffered some hurt at the hands of subjects of the other state shall settle the dispute equitably, meeting at the border either in person or through their own representatives before the officials of both states, and in this manner the guilty party shall make good the damage.

8. Henceforth, the Persians shall not complain to the Romans about the fortification of Daras. But in future neither state shall fortify or protect with a wall any place along the frontier, so that no occasion for dispute shall arise from such an act and the treaty be broken.

9. The forces of one state shall not attack or make war upon a people or any other territory subject to the other, but without inflicting or suffering injury shall remain where they are so that they too might enjoy the peace.

10. A large force, beyond what is adequate to defend the town, shall not be stationed at Daras, and the general of the East shall not have his headquarters there, in order that this not lead to incursions against or injury to the Persians. It was agreed that if some such should happen, the commander at Daras should deal with the offense.

11. If a city causes damage to or destroys the property of a city of the other side not in legitimate hostilities and with a regular military force but by guile and theft (for there are such godless men who do these things to provide a pretext for war), it was agreed that the judges stationed on the frontiers of both states should make a thorough investigation of such acts and punish them. If these prove unable to check the damage that neighbours are inflicting on each other, it was agreed that the case should be referred to the general of the East on the understanding that if the dispute were not settled within six months and the plaintiff had not recovered his losses, the offender should be liable to the plaintiff for a double indemnity. It was agreed that if the matter were not settled in this way, the injured party should send a deputation to the sovereign of the offender. If within one year the sovereign does not give satisfaction and the plaintiff does not receive the double indemnity due to him, the treaty shall be regarded as broken in respect of this clause.

12. Here you might find prayers to God and imprecations to the effect that may God be gracious and ever an ally to him who abides by the peace, but if anyone with deceit wishes to alter any of the agreements, may God be his adversary and enemy.

13. The treaty is for fifty years, and the terms of the peace shall be in force for fifty years, the year being reckoned according to the old fashion as ending with the three hundred and sixty-fifth day.}}