Editing Indian National Congress (section)

== Political positions ==
{{Liberalism sidebar}}

=== Social affairs ===
The Congress party emphasizes [[social equality]], [[Freedom (political)|freedom]], [[secularism]], and [[equal opportunity]].<ref name="NSGehlot1991">{{cite book|author=N. S. Gehlot|title=The Congress Party in India: Policies, Culture, Performance|url={{Google books|06HLD2_3Qj4C|page=PM177|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=1991|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|isbn=978-81-7100-306-8|pages=150–200}}</ref> Its political position is generally considered to be in the centre.<ref name="British-Journal"/> Historically, the party has represented farmers, labourers, and [[National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005|Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act]] (MGNREGA).<ref name="MGNREGA">{{cite web |title=National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 |url=https://rural.nic.in/sites/default/files/nrega/Library/Books/1_MGNREGA_Act.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Law and Justice |access-date=11 July 2021}}</ref> The MGNREGA was initiated with the objective of "enhancing livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year, to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work." Another aim of MGNREGA is to create durable assets (such as roads, canals, ponds, and wells).<ref name="MGNREGA"/>

The Congress has positioned itself as both pro-Hindu and protector of the minorities. The party supports [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s doctrine of {{lang|hi|[[Sarva Dharma Sama Bhava]]}}, collectively termed by its party members as secularism. Former Chief Minister of Punjab and senior Congress member [[Amarinder Singh]] said, "India belongs to all religions, which is its strength, and the Congress would not allow anyone to destroy its cherished secular values."<ref name="Captain CM">{{cite news |title=Congress will safeguard secularism |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/congress-will-safeguard-secularism/article27074338.ece |access-date=6 July 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=9 May 2019}}</ref> On 9 November 1989, Rajiv Gandhi had allowed {{lang|hi|Shilanyas}} (foundation stone-laying ceremony) adjacent to the then disputed [[Ram Janmabhoomi]] site.<ref name="Ram Temple Rajiv">{{cite news |last1=Kundu |first1=Chayan |title=Fact Check: False claims of Rajiv Gandhi at Ram temple 'bhoomi pujan' go viral |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/fact-check/story/fact-check-false-claims-of-rajiv-gandhi-at-ram-temple-bhoomi-pujan-go-viral-1704708-2020-07-26 |access-date=6 July 2021 |work=India Today |agency=Living Media Pvt. Ltd. |date=26 July 2020}}</ref> Subsequently, his government faced heavy criticism over the passing of [[The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986]], which nullified the Supreme Court's judgment in the [[Shah Bano case]]. The [[1984 anti-Sikh riots|1984 violence]] damaged the Congress's party moral argument over secularism. The BJP questioned the Congress party's moral authority in questioning it about the [[2002 Gujarat riots]].<ref name="ThePrint">{{cite news |last1=Vij |first1=Shivam |title=Reclaiming Indian pluralism will need annihilation of the Congress party |url=https://theprint.in/opinion/reclaiming-indian-pluralism-will-need-annihilation-of-congress/485212/ |access-date=6 July 2021 |work=ThePrint |publisher=Shekhar Gupta |date=19 August 2020}}</ref> The Congress has distanced itself from [[Hindutva]] ideology, though the party has softened its stance after defeat in the 2014 and 2019 general elections.<ref name="Hindutva">{{cite news |title='Rajiv Gandhi opened locks, called for Ram Rajya in 1985': Kamal Nath |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/rajiv-gandhi-opened-locks-called-for-ram-rajya-in-1985-kamal-nath/632586 |access-date=6 July 2021 |work=Times Now |date=6 August 2020}}</ref>

Under Narsimha Rao's premiership, the [[Panchayati raj in India|Panchayati Raj]] and [[Municipal corporation (India)|Municipal Government]] got constitutional status. With the enactment of the 73rd and 74th amendments to the constitution, a new chapter, Part- IX added to the constitution.<ref name="73rd">{{cite web |title=Panchayati Raj System in Independent India |url=http://www.pbrdp.gov.in/documents/6205745/98348119/Panchayati%20Raj%20System%20in%20Independent%20India.pdf |publisher=Department of Rural Development and Panchayats, Punjab |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref> States have been given the flexibility to take into consideration their geographical, politico-administrative, and other consideration while adopting the Panchayati-raj system. In both panchayats and municipal bodies, in an attempt to ensure that there is inclusiveness in [[Local government in India|local self-government]], reservations for SC/ST and women were implemented.<ref name="Self Governance">{{cite web |title=Governance and Development |url=https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/plans/mta/midterm/english-pdf/chapter-17.pdf |publisher=[[NITI Aayog]] |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref>

After independence, Congress advocated the idea of establishing [[Hindi]] as the sole national language of India. Nehru led the faction of the Congress party which promoted Hindi as the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the Indian nation.<ref name="Lingua">{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43950462 |jstor=43950462 |access-date=5 July 2021|title=Jawaharlal Nehru and the Language Problem |last1=Agrawala |first1=S. K. |journal=Journal of the Indian Law Institute |year=1977 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=44–67 }}</ref> However, the non-Hindi-speaking Indian states, especially [[Tamil Nadu]], opposed it and wanted the continued use of the English language. Lal Bahadur Shastri's tenure witnessed several protests and riots including the Madras [[Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu|anti-Hindi agitation of 1965]].<ref name="Tamil protest">{{cite news |last1=Nair |first1=Chitralekha |title=A brief history of anti-Hindi imposition agitations in India |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2019/06/07/brief-history-anti-hindi-imposition-agitations-india.html |access-date=5 July 2021 |work=The Week (Indian magazine) |publisher=Jacob Mathew |date=7 June 2019}}</ref> Shashtri's appealed to agitators to withdraw the movement and assured them that the English would continue to be used as the official language as long as the non-Hindi speaking states wanted.<ref name="Assurance">{{cite news |last1=Madan |first1=Karuna |title=Anti-Hindi agitation: How it all began |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/india/anti-hindi-agitation-how-it-all-began-1.2018146 |access-date=5 July 2021 |work=Gulf News |agency=Al Nisr Publishing |date=28 April 2017}}</ref> Indira Gandhi assuaged the sentiments of the non-Hindi speaking states by getting the Official Languages Act amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English could continue until a resolution to end the use of the language was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted use Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament.<ref name="Language 1967">{{cite web |title=The Official Languages Act, 1963 |url=https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/official-languages-act-1963 |publisher=Department of Official Language, Government of India |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref> This was a guarantee of de facto use of both Hindi and English as official languages, thus establishing bilingualism in India.<ref name="Language Act">{{cite web |title=Complete Text of the Official Languages Act |url=https://www.uottawa.ca/clmc/india-official-languages-act#:~:text=Bill%2019%20(1963)%20as%20amended%201967&text=An%20Act%20to%20provide%20for,certain%20communication%20purposes%20in%20HighCourts.&text=1)%20This%20Act%20may%20be,the%20Official%20Languages%20Act%2C%201963. |publisher=The University of Ottawa |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref> The step led to the end of the anti-Hindi protests and riots in states.

[[Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code]], which, among other things, criminalizes homosexuality; former Congress president Rahul Gandhi said, "Sexuality is a matter of personal freedom and should be left to individuals". Leading party figure and former Finance Minister [[P. Chidambaram]] stated that the ''[[Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India]]'' judgment must be quickly reversed". On 18 December 2015, [[Shashi Tharoor]] leading member of the party introduced a [[private member's bill]] to replace Section 377 in the Indian Penal Code and decriminalize consensual same-sex relations. The bill was defeated in the first reading. In March 2016, Tharoor again reintroduce the private member's bill to decriminalize homosexuality but was voted down for the second time.

=== Economic policies ===
{{See also|Economic liberalisation in India}}
The history of the economic policy of Congress-led governments can be divided into two periods. The first period lasted from independence, in 1947, to 1991 and put great emphasis on the public sector.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/a-short-history-of-indian-economy-1947-2019-tryst-with-destiny-other-stories-1565801528109.html|title=A short history of Indian economy 1947–2019: Tryst with destiny & other stories|date=14 August 2019|newspaper=Mint}}</ref> The second period began with [[economic liberalization|economic liberalisation]] in 1991. At present, Congress endorses a mixed economy in which the private sector and the state both direct the economy, which has characteristics of both [[market economy|market]] and [[Planned economy|planned economies]]. The Congress advocates import substitution industrialisation—the replacement of imports with the domestic product, and believes the Indian economy should be liberalised to increase the pace of development.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/nehrus-economic-philosophy/article18589548.ece|title=Nehru's economic philosophy|first=H.|last=Venkatasubbiah|newspaper=The Hindu|date=27 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/manmohan-singh-credits-jawarharlal-nehru-for-the-idea-of-mixed-economy/articleshow/45197661.cms|title=Manmohan Singh credits Jawarharlal Nehru for the 'idea of mixed economy'|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref>

[[File:Pranab Mukherjee - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 2009.jpg|thumb|left|alt=refer caption | Then-Finance Minister [[Pranab Mukherjee]] during the [[World Economic Forum|World Economic Summit]] 2009 in New Delhi]]

At the beginning of the first period, erstwhile prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru implemented policies based on [[import substitution industrialization|import substitution industrialisation]] and advocated a [[mixed economy]] where the government-controlled [[public sector]] would co-exist with the [[private sector]]. He believed that the establishment of basic and heavy industry was fundamental to the development and modernisation of the Indian economy. The government, therefore, directed investment primarily into key public-sector industries—steel, iron, coal, and power—promoting their development with subsidies and protectionist policies. This period was called the [[Licence Raj]], or Permit Raj,<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1989: from [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] ''rāj'': to reign, rule; cognate with [[Latin|L.]] ''rēx'', ''rēg-is'', [[Old Irish|OIr.]] ''rī'', ''rīg'' king (see RICH).</ref> which was the elaborate system of [[Industrial licensing in India|licences]], regulations, and accompanying [[red tape]] that were required to set up and run businesses in India between 1947 and 1990.<ref>[http://www.swaminomics.org/articles/20011125_streethawking.htm Street Hawking Promise Jobs in Future] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080329023451/http://www.swaminomics.org/articles/20011125_streethawking.htm |date=29 March 2008 }}, ''[[The Times of India]]'', 25 November 2001</ref> The Licence Raj was a result of Nehru and his successors' desire to have a [[planned economy]] where all aspects of the economy were controlled by the state, and licences were given to a select few. Up to 80 government agencies had to be satisfied before private companies could produce something; and, if the licence were granted, the government would regulate production.<ref name="BBC UK">{{cite web | title=India: The economy | website=BBC NEWS | date=3 December 1998 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/55427.stm | access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref> The licence raj system continued under Indira Gandhi. In addition, many key sectors such as banking, steel coal, and oil were nationalized.<ref name="Rosser" /><ref name="Kapila1">{{Cite book
| publisher=Academic Foundation| page=126|url={{Google books|de66PkzcfusC|page=PA126|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-8171881055| last1=Kapila| first1=Raj| last2=Kapila| first2=Uma| title=Understanding India's economic Reforms| year=2004}}</ref> Under Rajiv Gandhi, the trade regime were liberalised with reduction in duties on several import items and incentives to promote exports.<ref name="princeton.edu">{{cite journal |author1=Philippe Aghion|author2=Robin Burgess |author3=Stephen J. Redding|author4=Fabrizio Zilibotti |year=2008|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~reddings/pubpapers/ABRZ_AER_Sept2008.pdf|title=The Unequal Effects of Liberalization: Evidence from Dismantling the License Raj in India|journal=American Economic Review |volume=98|issue=4|pages=1397–1412|doi=10.1257/aer.98.4.1397|s2cid=966634 }}</ref> Tax rates were reduced and curbs on company assets loosened.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19910615-in-an-india-known-for-thinking-small-rajiv-gandhi-generated-high-stakes-optimism-814461-1991-06-15|title=In an India known for thinking small, Rajiv Gandhi generated high-stakes optimism|first=Sudeep |last=Chakravarti|date=15 June 1991|website=India Today}}</ref>

In 1991, the new Congress government, led by [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]], initiated reforms to avert the impending [[1991 India economic crisis|1991 economic crisis]].<ref name="Narasimha Rao was father of economic reform: Pranab" /><ref name="Ghosh">{{cite web|url=http://www.globaleconomicgovernance.org/wp-content/uploads/ghosh-pathways_india.pdf|archive-date=25 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131025042847/http://www.globaleconomicgovernance.org/wp-content/uploads/ghosh-pathways_india.pdf|title= India's Pathway through Financial Crisis|work=globaleconomicgovernance.org|first=Arunabha |last=Ghosh|publisher=Global Economic Governance Programme|access-date=2 March 2007}}</ref> The reforms known as [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP) or "1991 economic reforms" or "LPG reforms", progressed furthest in opening up areas to [[foreign direct investment|foreign investment]], reforming [[capital markets]], [[Deregulation|deregulating]] domestic business, and reforming the trade regime. The reforms were implemented during a time when India grappled with a balance of payments crisis, elevated inflation, underperforming public sector undertakings (PSUs), and a substantial fiscal deficit.<ref name="LPG Rao">{{cite news |last1=Tiwari |first1=Brajesh Kumar |title=Dr Manmohan Singh: The Architect of India's Economic Reform |url=https://news.abplive.com/blog/dr-manmohan-singh-the-architect-of-india-s-economic-reform-1632067 |access-date=3 December 2023 |work=ABP News |agency=ABP Group |date=26 September 2023}}</ref> It also aimed to transition the economy from a socialist model to a market economy.<ref name="Economy Reforms">{{cite news |last1=Chundawat |first1=Keshav Singh |title=Dr Manmohan Singh, the man who opened up Indian economy |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/politics/pm-modi-extends-birthday-wishes-to-dr-manmohan-singh-the-man-who-opened-up-indian-economy-17886361.htm |access-date=3 December 2023 |work=CNBC TV18 |agency=Network18 Group |date=26 September 2023}}</ref> The goals of Rao's government were to reduce the [[fiscal deficit]], [[privatization|privatise]] the public sector, and increase investment in infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbWF5hykvwYC&q=1991+economic+reforms+progressed+furthest+in+opening+up+areas+to+foreign+investment%2C+reforming+capital+markets%2C+deregulating+domestic+business%2C+and+reforming+the+trade+regime.&pg=PA65|title=Methodology And Perspectives of Business Studies|first=G.|last=Balachandran|date=28 July 2010|publisher=Ane Books India|isbn=9789380156682}}</ref> Trade reforms and changes in the regulation of [[foreign direct investment]] were introduced to open India to foreign trade while stabilising external loans.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/narasimha-rao-s-bold-economic-reforms-helped-in-india-s-development-naidu-11609062633183.html|title=Narasimha Rao's bold economic reforms helped in India's development: Naidu|date=27 December 2020|newspaper=Mint}}</ref> Rao chose [[Manmohan Singh]] for the job. Singh, an acclaimed economist and former [[List of governors of the Reserve Bank of India|governor]] of the [[Reserve Bank of India]], played a central role in implementing these reforms.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/this-day-the-half-lion-saved-india-when-rao-and-manmohan-brought-economy-back-from-the-brink/articleshow/59738979.cms|title=This day the half-lion saved India: When Rao and Manmohan brought economy back from the brink|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref>

In 2004, Singh became prime minister of the Congress-led UPA government. Singh remained prime minister after the UPA won the 2009 general elections. The UPA government introduced policies aimed at reforming the banking and financial sectors, as well as public sector companies.<ref name="ISAS">{{cite web | title=Indian Government's Bold Banking Reforms: Timely Implementation Key to Success – NUS Institute of South Asian Studies (ISAS) | website=NUS Institute of South Asian Studies (ISAS) | date=2 March 2021 | url=https://www.isas.nus.edu.sg/papers/indian-governments-bold-banking-reforms-timely-implementation-key-to-success/ | access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref> It also introduced policies aimed at relieving farmers of their debt.<ref>{{cite web|title=Farmer Waiver Scheme- PM statement|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=39122|publisher=PIB|access-date=14 June 2013}}</ref> In 2005, [[First Manmohan Singh ministry|Singh government]] introduced the [[value added tax|value-added tax]], replacing the [[sales tax]]. India was able to resist the worst effects of the global [[economic crisis of 2008]].<ref>Mohan, R., 2008. Global financial crisis and key risks: impact on India and Asia. RBI Bulletin, pp.2003–2022.</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Global inflation climbs to historic levels|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/12/business/worldbusiness/12iht-inflate.1.9963291.html|newspaper=The New York Times|author=Kevin Plumberg|author2=Steven C. Johnson|access-date=17 June 2011|date=2 November 2008}}</ref> Singh's government continued the [[Golden Quadrilateral]], the Indian highway modernisation program that was initiated by [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee|Vajpayee]]'s government.<ref>{{cite web|title=Economic benefits of golden Quadilateral|date=4 May 2013 |url=http://businesstoday.intoday.in/story/economic-benefits-of-the-golden-quadrilateral-project/1/194321.html|publisher=Business today|access-date=14 June 2013}}</ref> Then Finance Minister of India [[Pranab Mukherjee]] implemented many tax reforms, notably scrapping the [[Fringe Benefits Tax (India)|Fringe Benefits Tax]] and the Commodities Transaction Tax.<ref>{{cite web|date=6 July 2009|title=Fringe benefit tax abolished|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/business/fringe-benefit-tax-abolished/story-w54pPgAH9TN3SE9ze9fdiI.html|access-date=31 August 2020|website=The Hindustan Times|archive-date=1 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901040931/https://www.hindustantimes.com/business/fringe-benefit-tax-abolished/story-w54pPgAH9TN3SE9ze9fdiI.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He implemented the [[Goods and Services Tax (India)|Goods and Services Tax]] (GST) during his tenure.<ref>{{Cite news|date=13 April 2017|title=President Pranab Mukherjee gives nod to four supporting Bills on GST|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/president-pranab-mukherjee-gives-nod-to-four-supporting-legislations-on-gst/article17982848.ece|access-date=31 August 2020|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=10 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610130246/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/president-pranab-mukherjee-gives-nod-to-four-supporting-legislations-on-gst/article17982848.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> His reforms were well received by major corporate executives and economists. The introduction of retrospective taxation, however, has been criticised by some economists.<ref>{{cite web|date=27 October 2017|title=Manmohan & Sonia opposed retrospective tax: Pranab Mukherjee |url=https://theprint.in/pageturner/excerpt/retrospective-tax-pranab-mukherjee/13673/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901040859/https://theprint.in/pageturner/excerpt/retrospective-tax-pranab-mukherjee/13673/|archive-date=1 September 2020|url-status=live|access-date=31 August 2020|website=ThePrint}}</ref> Mukherjee expanded funding for several social sector schemes including the [[Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission]] (JNNURM). He also supported budget increases for improving [[literacy in India|literacy]] and health care. He expanded infrastructure programmes such as the [[National Highway Development Programme]].<ref>{{cite web|title=More Funds for Infrastructure Development, Farmers|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/more-funds-for-infrastructure-development-farmers/662289|access-date=1 September 2020|url-status=live|archive-date=1 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901040912/https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/more-funds-for-infrastructure-development-farmers/662289|magazine=Outlook|location=New Delhi}}</ref> Electricity coverage was also expanded during his tenure. Mukherjee also reaffirmed his commitment to the principle of fiscal prudence as some economists expressed concern about the rising fiscal deficits during his tenure, the highest since 1991. Mukherjee declared the expansion in government spending was only temporary.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Big spender|newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613|url=https://www.economist.com/news/2009/07/07/big-spender |access-date=1 September 2020|url-status=live|archive-date=1 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901040901/https://www.economist.com/news/2009/07/07/big-spender}}</ref>

=== National defence and home affairs ===
[[File:The Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh and his wife, Smt. Gursharan Kaur during the Passing Out Parade at the Platinum Jubilee Course of Indian Military Academy, in Dehradun, on December 10, 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Manmohan Singh]] and his wife during the passing out parade at the Platinum Jubilee Course of IMA on 10 December 2007; with foreign gentleman cadets.]]
Since its independence, India was in pursuing of nuclear capabilities, as Nehru felt that nuclear energy could take the country forward and help achieve its developmental goals.<ref name="Vision">{{cite web |title=Indian Nuclear Program |url=https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/indian-nuclear-program |publisher=National Museum of Nuclear Science & History |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> Consequently, Nehru began to seek assistance from the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States.<ref name="Skardon2010">{{cite book|author=C. Philip Skardon|title=A Lesson for Our Times: How America Kept the Peace in the Hungary-Suez Crisis of 1956|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRUgkjbBvBAC&pg=PA695|date=19 March 2010|publisher=Author House|isbn=978-1-4520-3033-3|pages=695–696}}</ref><ref name="Assistance">{{cite web |title=The end of the British empire in India |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/empire/g3/cs3/background.htm |publisher=The National Archives |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> In 1958 the government of India with the help of [[Homi J. Bhabha]] adopted a three-phase power production plan and the [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|Nuclear Research Institute]] was established in 1954.<ref name="Perkovich2001">{{cite book|author=George Perkovich|title=India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UDA9dUryS8EC&pg=PA22|year=2001|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23210-5|page=22}}</ref> Indira Gandhi witnessed continuous nuclear testing by [[People's Republic of China|China]] from 1964 onwards, which she considered an existential threat to India.<ref name="JSTOR">{{cite journal |last1=Couper |first1=Frank E. |title=Indian Party Conflict on the Issue of Atomic Weapons |journal=The Journal of Developing Areas |year=1969 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=191–206 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4189559 |jstor=4189559 |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="LATimes1998">{{cite news |last1=Tempest |first1=Rone |title=India's Nuclear Tests Jolt Its Relations With China |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-jun-11-mn-58841-story.html |access-date=7 July 2021 |work=Los Angeles Times Communications LLC |date=11 June 1998}}</ref> India conducted its first nuclear test in the [[Pokhran]] desert in Rajasthan on 18 May 1974, under the name [[Operation Smiling Buddha]].<ref name="First Test">{{cite news |last1=Nair |first1=Arun |title=Smiling Buddha: All You Need To Know About India's First Nuclear Test at Pokhran |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/smiling-buddha-all-you-need-to-know-about-indias-first-nuclear-test-at-pokhran-2230645 |access-date=5 July 2021 |publisher=NDTV |date=18 May 2020}}</ref> India asserted that the test was for "[[peaceful nuclear explosion|peaceful purposes]]", However, the test was criticized by other countries and the United States and Canada suspended all nuclear support to India.<ref name="PNE">{{cite web |title=India's Nuclear Weapons Program Smiling Buddha: 1974 |url=https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaSmiling.html |publisher=The Nuclear Weapon Archive |access-date=5 July 2021}}</ref> Despite intense international criticism, the nuclear test was domestically popular and caused an immediate revival of Indira Gandhi's popularity, which had flagged considerably from its heights after the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war]].<ref name="Buddha">{{cite news |last1=Chaturvedi |first1=Amit |title=Smiling Buddha: How India successfully conducted first nuclear test in Pokhran |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/smiling-buddha-how-india-successfully-conducted-first-nuclear-test-in-pokhran-101621301524390.html |access-date=4 July 2021 |work=The Hindustan Times|agency=HT Media Ltd |date=18 May 2021}}</ref><ref name="Popularity">{{cite news |last1=Malhotra |first1=Inder |title=When the Buddha first smiled |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/when-the-buddha-first-smiled/ |access-date=5 July 2021 |work=The Indian Express |date=15 May 2009}}</ref>

The transition to statehood for parts of [[Northeast India]] was successfully overseen under Indira Gandhi's premiership.<ref name="Statehood NE">{{cite news |last1=Karmakar |first1=Rahul |title=Renewed push for Statehood in the Northeast |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/renewed-push-for-statehood-in-the-northeast/article25032429.ece |access-date=20 July 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=25 September 2018}}</ref> In 1972, her administration granted statehood to [[Meghalaya]], Manipur and [[Tripura]], while the [[North-East Frontier Agency]] was declared a union territory and renamed [[Arunachal Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/01/23/archives/india-rearranges-northeast-region-3-states-and-2-territories.html|title=INDIA REARRANGES NORTHEAST REGION|newspaper=The New York Times|date=23 January 1972}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/arunachal-pradesh-309685-2016-02-20|title=Arunachal Pradesh became an Indian State today: Some interesting facts about the 'Land of the Dawn-Lit Mountains' |date=20 February 2017 |website=India Today}}</ref> This was followed by the [[1975 Sikkimese monarchy referendum|annexation of Sikkim]] in 1975.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19780430-did-india-have-a-right-to-annex-sikkim-in-1975-818651-2015-02-18|title=Did India have a right to annex Sikkim in 1975?|first1=Sunil |last1=Sethi|date=18 February 2015 |website=India Today}}</ref> In the late 1960s and 1970s, Gandhi ordered the Indian army to [[Naxalite#Violence in West Bengal|militant Communist uprisings]] in the state of West Bengal. The [[Naxalite–Maoist insurgency]] in India was entirely suppressed during the [[The Emergency (India)|state of emergency]].<ref name="Naxalite">{{cite web |title=A historical introduction to Naxalism in India |url=https://www.efsas.org/publications/study-papers/an-introduction-to-naxalism-in-india/ |publisher=European Foundation for South Asian Studies |access-date=3 December 2023}}</ref>

Manmohan Singh's administration initiated a massive reconstruction effort in Kashmir to stabilize the region and strengthened anti-terrorism laws with amendments to the [[Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act]] (UAPA).<ref name="UAPA">{{cite web|title=The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) |url=http://mha.nic.in/hindi/sites/upload_files/mhahindi/files/pdf/UAPA-1967.pdf|website=nic.in |publisher=National Informatics Centre|access-date=17 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017053842/http://mha.nic.in/hindi/sites/upload_files/mhahindi/files/pdf/UAPA-1967.pdf|archive-date=17 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> After a period of initial success, insurgent infiltration and terrorism in Kashmir have increased since 2009. However, the Singh administration was successful in reducing terrorism in Northeast India.<ref name=Buzz7>[http://buzz7.com/news/infiltration-has-not-reduced-in-kashmir-insurgency-down-in-north-east-chidambaram.html Infiltration has not reduced in Kashmir, insurgency down in North East: Chidambaram] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107072045/http://buzz7.com/news/infiltration-has-not-reduced-in-kashmir-insurgency-down-in-north-east-chidambaram.html |date=7 January 2016 }}</ref> Under the background of the [[Punjab insurgency]], the [[Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act]] (TADA) was passed. The aim of the law is mainly directed toward eliminating the infiltrators from Pakistan. The law gave wide powers to [[law enforcement agencies]] for dealing with national terrorist and socially disruptive activities. The police were not obliged to produce a detainee before a judicial magistrate within 24 hours. The law was widely criticized by human rights organizations. After the [[2008 Mumbai attacks|November 2008 Mumbai terror attacks]], the UPA government created the [[National Investigation Agency]] (NIA), in response to the need for a central agency to combat terrorism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Finally-govt-clears-central-terror-agency-tougher-laws/articleshow/3842368.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022154006/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-12-16/india/27904311_1_special-anti-terror-law-nia-terror-related |url-status=live |archive-date=22 October 2012 |title=Finally, govt clears central terror agency, tougher laws |date=16 December 2008 |work=[[The Times of India]]  |access-date=28 September 2013}}</ref> The Unique Identification Authority of India was established in February 2009 to implement the proposed [[Multipurpose National Identity Card]], to increase national security.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Watfa |first1=Mohamed K |title=E-Healthcare Systems and Wireless Communications: Current and Future Challenges: Current and Future Challenges |date=2011 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-61350-124-5 |page=190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kOaeBQAAQBAJ&q=The+Unique+Identification+Authority+of+India+was+established+in+February+2009+to+implement+the+proposed+Multipurpose+National+Identity+Card%2C+with+the+objective+of+increasing+national+security&pg=PA190 |access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref>

=== Education and healthcare ===
The Congress government under Nehru oversaw the establishment of many institutions of higher learning, including the [[All India Institute of Medical Sciences]], the [[Indian Institutes of Technology]], the [[Indian Institutes of Management]] and the [[National Institutes of Technology]]. The [[National Council of Educational Research and Training]] (NCERT) was established in 1961 as a literary, scientific, and charitable Society under the Societies Registration Act.<ref name="NCERT">{{cite web | title=About, NCERT | website=RIE | url=https://riebhopal.nic.in/about-ncert.html | access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref> Jawahar Lal Nehru outlined a commitment in his [[Five-Year Plans of India|five-year plans]] to guarantee free and compulsory primary education to all of India's children. Rajiv Gandhi's premiership pioneered public information infrastructure and innovation in India.<ref name="Rajiv Modern">{{cite news |last1=Shakti Shekhar |first1=Kumar |title=5 ways how Rajiv Gandhi changed India forever |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/5-ways-how-rajiv-gandhi-changed-india-forever-1318979-2018-08-20 |access-date=4 July 2021 |work=India Today |agency=Living Media Pvt. Ltd. |date=20 August 2018}}</ref> His government allowed the import of fully assembled [[motherboards]], which led to the price of computers being reduced.<ref name="computer">{{cite web |last1=Singal |first1=Aastha |title=Rajiv Gandhi –The Father of Information Technology & Telecom Revolution of India |url=https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/338415 |website=entrepreneur.com/ |date=20 August 2019 |publisher=Entrepreneur India |access-date=4 July 2021}}</ref> The concept of having [[Navodaya Vidyalaya]] in every district of India was born as a part of the [[National Policy on Education]] (NPE).<ref name="NPE TOI">{{cite news |last1=Sharma |first1=Sanjay |title=National Education Policy 2020: All You Need to Know |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/national-education-policy-2020-all-you-need-to-know/articleshow/77239854.cms |access-date=24 July 2021 |work=The Times of India |date=30 July 2020}}</ref>

In 2005, The Congress-led government started the National Rural Health Mission, which employed about 500,000 community health workers. It was praised by economist [[Jeffrey Sachs]].<ref name="timepoverty">{{cite news|title=The End of Poverty|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1034738,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050317031951/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1034738,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 March 2005|first=Jeffrey D.|last=Sachs|date=6 March 2005|magazine=Time}}</ref> In 2006, it implemented a proposal to reserve 27 per cent of seats in the All India Institute of Medical Studies (AIIMS), the [[Indian Institutes of Technology]] (IITs), the [[Indian Institutes of Management]] (IIMs), and other central higher education institutions, for [[Other Backward Classes]], which led to the [[2006 Indian anti-reservation protests]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Students-cry-out-No-reservation-please/articleshow/1513316.cms |title=Students cry out: No reservation please |work=The Times of India |date=3 May 2006 |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> The Singh government also continued the [[Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan]] program, which includes the introduction and improvement of mid-day school meals and the opening of new schools throughout India, especially in rural areas, to fight [[illiteracy]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Direct SSA funds for school panels|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/338571/direct-ssa-funds-school-panels.html|access-date=14 June 2013|newspaper=Deccan Herald}}</ref> During Manmohan Singh's prime ministership, eight Institutes of Technology were opened in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Orissa, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Himachal Pradesh.<ref>{{cite news|title=LS passes bill to provide IIT for eight states.|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/148456/ls-passes-bill-provide-iit.html|newspaper=Deccan Herald|access-date=14 June 2013}}</ref>

=== Foreign policies ===
[[File:NATO vs. Warsaw Pact (1949-1990).svg|thumb|The ''aligned countries'' on the northern hemisphere: [[NATO]] in blue and the [[Warsaw Pact]] in red.]]
[[File:Stevan Kragujevic, Tito, Naser, Nehru, Dolazak na Brione.jpg|thumb|right|alt=refer caption|[[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], and [[Josip Broz Tito]], pioneers of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]]]
<!--[[File:President Barack Obama with Prime Minister Manmohan Singh 2009-11-24(2).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|alt= Erstwhile PM Manmohan Singh and Barack Obama the then US president, meet in Washington, D.C. | Manmohan Singh with erstwhile President of the United States [[Barack Obama]] at the [[White House]]]]-->

Throughout much of the [[Cold War]] period, Congress supported a foreign policy of [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-alignment]] that called for India to form ties with both the Western and Eastern Blocs, but to avoid formal alliances with either.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/jawaharlal-nehru-the-architect-of-indias-foreign-policy/articleshow/58767014.cms |title=Non-Aligned Movement: Jawaharlal Nehru – The architect of India's foreign policy|work=The Times of India |date=20 May 2017 |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> US support for Pakistan led the party to endorse a friendship treaty with the Soviet Union in 1971.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ChanakyaCode/the-indo-pak-war-1965-and-the-tashkent-agreement-role-of-external-powers/ |title=The Indo-Pak war 1965 and the Tashkent agreement: Role of external powers |date=24 October 2015 |work=The Times of India |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> Congress has continued the foreign policy started by P.&nbsp;V. Narasimha Rao. This includes the [[India–Pakistan relations|peace process with Pakistan]], and the exchange of high-level visits by leaders from both countries.<ref name=peace>{{cite news|title=Position of negotiation.|url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/loc-violation-are-talks-enough-or-should-india-take-action-582121.html|access-date=18 August 2014|publisher=[[Firstpost]]|agency=[[Network 18]]|date=9 January 2013}}</ref> The UPA government has tried to end the border dispute with the People's Republic of China through negotiations.<ref name="Economist news">{{cite news|title=India's prime minister, Manmohan Singh, in Beijing to discuss matters of trade and border defence.|url=https://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21588422-politics-week
|access-date=18 August 2014|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=26 October 2013}}</ref><ref name=republic>{{cite news|title=Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visits Beijing|url=http://www.china-briefing.com/news/2008/01/14/indian-prime-minister-manmohan-singh-visits-beijing.html|access-date=18 August 2014|work=China Briefing|agency=Dezan Shira & Associates|publisher=Business Intelligence|date=14 January 2008}}</ref>
[[Afghanistan–India relations|Relations with Afghanistan]] have also been a concern for Congress.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/17474/indiaafghanistan_relations.html|title=India-Afghanistan Relations|access-date=11 December 2008|last=Bajoria|first=Jayshree|date=23 October 2008|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081129231738/http://www.cfr.org/publication/17474/indiaafghanistan_relations.html|archive-date=29 November 2008}}</ref> During Afghan President [[Hamid Karzai]]'s visit to New Delhi in August 2008, Manmohan Singh increased the aid package to Afghanistan for the development of schools, health clinics, infrastructure, and defence.<ref name=BBC2>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7540204.stm|title=India announces more Afghan aid|date=4 August 2008|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> India is now one of the single largest aid donors to Afghanistan.<ref name=BBC2 /> To nourish political, security, cultural and economical connections with central Asian countries, it launched [[Connect Central Asia]] policy in 2012. This policy is aimed at strengthening and expanding India's relations with [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], and [[Uzbekistan]]. [[Look East policy (India)|Look East policy]] was initiated in 1992 by [[Narsimha Rao|Narasimha Rao]] to cultivate extensive economic and strategic relations with the nations of Southeast Asia to bolster its standing as a regional power and a counterweight to the strategic influence of the People's Republic of China. Subsequently, in 1992 Rao decided to bring into open India's relations with Israel, which had been kept covertly active for a few years during his tenure as a Foreign Minister, and permitted Israel to open an embassy in New Delhi.<ref name="IsraelRao">{{cite news |title=A timeline of India's ties with Israel |url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/9zCAQDe5L5mKdtU21A6pkN/Narendra-Modi-in-Israel-A-timeline-of-Indias-ties-with-Isr.html |access-date=2 August 2021 |newspaper=Mint |agency=HT Media |date=4 July 2017}}</ref> Rao decided to maintain a distance from the [[Dalai Lama]] to avoid aggravating Beijing's suspicions and concerns, and made successful overtures to [[Tehran]].<ref name="Irish1996">{{cite news |last1=Bedi |first1=Rahul |title=Permission for Dalai Lama films denied |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/permission-for-dalai-lama-films-denied-1.41053 |access-date=2 August 2021 |newspaper=The Irish Times |date=19 April 1996}}</ref>

Even though the Congress foreign policy doctrine stands for maintaining friendly relations with all the countries of the world, it has always exhibited a special bias towards the Afro-Asian nations. It played active role in forming [[Group of 77]] (1964, [[Group of 15]] (1990), [[Indian Ocean Rim Association]], and [[SAARC]]. Indira Gandhi firmly tied Indian anti-imperialist interests in Africa to those of the Soviet Union. She openly and enthusiastically supported liberation struggles in Africa.<ref name="MEAIndira">{{cite web |title=India – Zambia Relations |url=https://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Zambia_Jan_2016.pdf |publisher=Ministry of External Affairs (India) |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> In April 2006, New Delhi hosted an India–Africa summit attended by the leaders of 15 African states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://africanpress.wordpress.com/2008/03/28/several-african-leaders-to-attend-africa-india-summit-au-says/|title=Several African leaders to attend Africa-India summit, AU says|access-date=11 December 2008|date=28 March 2008|publisher=African Press International}}</ref>

The party opposes arms race and advocates disarmament, both conventional and nuclear.<ref name="IndiaToday2000">{{cite news |last1=Mitra |first1=Sumit |title=Congress divided against itself on whether India should have more nuclear tests |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/nation/story/20000508-congress-divided-against-itself-on-whether-india-should-have-more-nuclear-tests-777525-2000-05-08 |access-date=7 July 2021 |work=India Today |agency=Living Media Pvt. Ltd. |date=8 May 2000}}</ref> When in power between 2004 and 2014, Congress worked on [[India–United States relations|India's relationship with the United States]]. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited the US in July 2005 to negotiate an [[India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement]]. US president [[George W. Bush]] visited India in March 2006; during this visit, a nuclear agreement that would give India access to nuclear fuel and technology in exchange for the [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]] inspection of its civil [[nuclear reactor]]s was proposed. Over two years of negotiations, followed by approval from the IAEA, the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] and the [[United States Congress]], the agreement was signed on 10 October 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90777/90852/6513319.html| title=U.S., India ink historic civilian nuclear deal|access-date=11 December 2008|date=11 October 2008|work=People's Daily}}</ref> However, it has not signed [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] (NPT) and [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]] (CTBT) due to their discriminatory and hegemonistic nature.<ref name="NTI2019">{{cite web |title=Indian Nuclear Weapons Program |url=https://www.nti.org/learn/countries/india/nuclear/ |publisher=The Nuclear Threat Initiative|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="Sipri2010">{{cite report |last1=Gopalaswamy |first1=Bharat |title=India and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: To Sign or not to Sign? |date=January 2010 |url=https://www.sipri.org/publications/sipri-policy-briefs/india-and-comprehensive-nuclear-test-ban-treaty-sign-or-not-sign |publisher=SIPRI |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref>

Congress' policy has been to cultivate friendly relations with Japan as well as [[European Union]] countries including the United Kingdom, France, and Germany.<ref name=conversation>{{cite web|last1=Haass|first1=Richard N.|title=A Conversation with Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh|url=http://www.cfr.org/india/conversation-prime-minister-dr-manmohan-singh/p20840|date=23 November 2009|website=cfr.org|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|access-date=18 August 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819083228/http://www.cfr.org/india/conversation-prime-minister-dr-manmohan-singh/p20840|archive-date=19 August 2014}}</ref> Diplomatic relations with Iran have continued, and negotiations over the [[Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline]] have taken place.<ref name="Iran relations">{{cite web|title=The 'peace pipeline'|url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/the-peace-pipeline|work=The National|location=Abu Dhabi|date=28 May 2009|access-date=18 August 2014}}</ref> Congress' policy has also been to improve relations with other developing countries, particularly Brazil and South Africa.<ref>{{cite web|title=India-South Africa relations|url=http://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/India-SouthAfrica_Relations.pdf|website=mea.gov.in|publisher=[[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]], [[Government of India]]|access-date=18 September 2014}}</ref>