Editing History of Ukraine (section)

==Early modern period==
===Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth===
{{Main|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Cossacks|Cossack uprisings}}
{{See also|History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)}}

After the [[Union of Lublin]] in 1569, which united the [[Kingdom of Poland]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] into the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], Ukrainian lands transitioned under Polish administration, becoming part of the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland]]. The union was driven by the need to counter external threats, primarily the growing aggression of [[Tsardom of Moscow]] and persistent raids by the [[Teutonic Order]], prompting both states to consolidate their resources and strengthen their defenses. This political shift marked a significant transformation of Ukraine's social, economic, and cultural landscape. Polish authorities initiated large-scale [[colonization]] efforts, resulting in the foundation of numerous new towns and villages, particularly in the steppe regions. Settlers brought new legal norms, governance practices, and economic models, integrating Ukrainian lands more closely into the Commonwealth's political system.<ref name="DF">[[Francis Dvornik|Dvornik, Francis]], ''The Slavs in European History and Civilization'', Rutgers University Press, {{ISBN|0-8135-0799-5}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=LACpYP-g1y8C&pg=PA254 Google Print, p.254]</ref><ref name="DavN">Norman Davies, ''God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-925339-0}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=b912JnKpYTkC&pg=PA50 Google Print, p.50]</ref>

[[File:Podział administracyjny I RP.png|thumb|left|Voivodeships of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
At the same time, [[Renaissance]] ideas began to permeate Ukrainian society, driven by the spread of new schools and educational institutions, which were often established by the Jesuits. The arrival of Polish settlers in large numbers led to cultural assimilation. Over time, a significant portion of the Ukrainian nobility became '[[polonisation|polonized]]', adopting Polish customs, language, and converting to [[Roman Catholicism]]. However, the majority of [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian-speaking]] peasants remained loyal to the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], which caused growing social and religious tensions. Polish influence extended not only politically but also culturally. Some polonized Ukrainian nobles, such as [[Stanisław Orzechowski]], made notable contributions to Polish intellectual and cultural life, writing influential works on theology, law, and politics. These changes contributed to the fragmentation of Ukrainian society, as the gap between the [[Catholic]], [[Polish language|Polish-speaking]] nobility and the Orthodox, Ruthenian-speaking peasants widened, creating the foundations for future conflicts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nowakowski |first=Przemysław |title=Statuty synodu zamojskiego 1720 roku: Nowe tłumaczenie z komentarzami |year=2020 |location=Cracow |pages=382–390}}</ref><ref name=KostKhmeln>"[[Nikolay Kostomarov]], ''[http://www.kulichki.com/inkwell/text/special/history/kostom/kostom36.htm Russian History in Biographies of its main figures.]'' "Little Russian Hetman Zinoviy-Bogdan Khmelnytsky." {{in lang|ru}}</ref>

The incorporation of [[Kyiv]], [[Volhynia]], [[Podolia]], and [[Bratslav]] lands into the Crown also strengthened internal connections between various Ukrainian regions. New trade routes and urban centers facilitated greater economic, social, and cultural interaction across these previously fragmented territories, fostering regional cohesion. However, despite the spread of [[Polish culture]] and governance, the Ukrainian population maintained a distinct identity rooted in Orthodox traditions and Ruthenian language, which became a key factor in their resistance to cultural assimilation.<ref>[[Natalia Yakovenko|Yakovenko, N.]] (2008). ''Ukrainian nobility from the end of 14th century to the mid of 17th century''. 2nd ed. {{ill|Krytyka (publisher)|uk|Критика (видавництво)|lt=Krytyka}}. Kyiv. {{ISBN|966-8978-14-5}}.</ref>

At the same time, the harsh conditions imposed on Ruthenian peasants by the Polish nobility sparked widespread resistance. As serfdom expanded and economic exploitation intensified, many peasants fled to the borderlands of the Dnipro region, seeking freedom and a better life. These frontier settlers became known as [[Cossacks]], forming a distinct social and military group known for their martial prowess, independence, and deep ties to the Orthodox faith. The Cossacks quickly gained a reputation as skilled warriors, adept at defending the southeastern borders of the Commonwealth from [[Tatars|Tatar]] raids. Recognizing their military value, the Polish authorities enlisted Cossacks into the Commonwealth’s army, particularly for the defense of frontier regions, and granted them limited privileges through the creation of the [[Registered Cossacks]] in the late 16th century. [[Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny]], one of the most prominent Cossack leaders, played a decisive role in the [[Battle of Khotyn (1621)|Battle of Khotyn]] in 1621, where the Commonwealth, with Cossack support, repelled a massive [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] army. His leadership and diplomatic efforts also strengthened ties with the Orthodox Church, as he sought to restore the Church’s influence in Ukrainian society.<ref name="Hrushevsky">Hrushevsky, M., 1999, The History of the Ukrainian Cossacks, Vol. 1, The Cossack Age to 1625, Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, {{ISBN|1895571286}}</ref>

[[File:BlackSea1600-es.svg|thumb|Control of the territory of Ukraine in 1600]]
However, despite their significant contributions to the Commonwealth’s military victories, the Cossacks were denied substantial political or social autonomy. The [[Szlachta]] (Polish nobility), which dominated the Commonwealth’s political system, viewed the Cossacks as a disruptive and uncontrollable force, refusing to recognize them as a distinct social class. Instead, the nobility made repeated attempts to reduce the Cossacks to the status of [[serfdom|serfs]], depriving them of their privileges and freedoms. This ongoing marginalization and denial of rights led to a series of [[Cossack uprisings]], as they sought to defend their autonomy, way of life, and religious identity. Notable rebellions included the [[Kosiński uprising|Kosiński Uprising]] (1591-1593) and the [[Nalyvaiko Uprising]] (1594-1596), both of which were brutally suppressed by the Polish authorities. These rebellions, however, underscored the growing discontent among the Cossacks and highlighted the tension between the Commonwealth’s central government and the frontier population.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland/The-Cossacks  The Cossacks of Poland]</ref>

By the early 17th century, the situation became increasingly volatile, with Cossack demands for recognition of their rights being continuously ignored. The Commonwealth's refusal to integrate the Cossacks politically and respect their distinct cultural and religious identity ultimately set the stage for larger conflicts, most notably the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] of 1648, also known as the Cossack–Polish War,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\C\O\Cossack6PolishWar.htm |title=Cossack-Polish War |website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611092927/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\C\O\Cossack6PolishWar.htm |archive-date=11 June 2022}}</ref> which profoundly reshaped the political landscape of Eastern Europe.<ref name="Chmielnicki-Massacres">{{cite book |author-last=Batista |author-first=Jakub |year=2014 |chapter=Chmielnicki Massacres (1648–1649) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVqqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |editor-last=Mikaberidze |editor-first=Alexander |title=Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia |location=[[Santa Barbara, California]] |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |volume=1 |pages=100–101 |isbn=978-1-59884-926-4}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Size and population of the voivodeships in the 16th century<ref>A. Jabłonowski, Źródła Dziejowe (Warsaw, 1889) xix: 73</ref>
|-
! colspan="2" class="unsortable" | Voivodeship!! Square kilometers !! Population (est.)
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Ruthenian Voivodeship|Galicia]] || 45,000 || 446,000
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Volhynian Voivodeship (1569–1795)|Volhynia]] || 42,000 || 294,000
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Podolian Voivodeship|Podilia]] || 19,000 || 98,000
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Bracław Voivodeship|Bratslav]] || 35,000 || 311,000
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Kiev Voivodeship|Kyiv]] || 117,000 || 234,000
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Belz Voivodeship|Belz]] (two regions) || [[Chełm Land|Kholm]] || 19,000 || 133,000
|-
| [[Podlaskie Voivodeship (1513–1795)|Pidliassia]] || 10,000 || 233,000
|}

=== Cossack era ===
{{Main|History of the Cossacks|Zaporozhian Sich}}

==== Cossack Hetmanate (1649–1764) ====
{{Main|Cossack Hetmanate|Hetman of the Zaporozhian Host}}
{{See also|Khmelnytsky Uprising|Great Northern War|Sack of Baturyn|Battle of Poltava}}

The [[Cossack Hetmanate]], also known as the Hetmanate of Ukraine, was a self-governing [[Zaporozhian Cossacks|Cossack state]] that existed between 1649 and 1764. It arose during a particularly volatile era in Eastern European history, following the seismic upheaval of the Khmelnytsky Uprising. This revolt, led by the charismatic and astute military leader [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]], sought to liberate Ukrainian lands from the dominion of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. The rebellion not only destabilized one of Europe’s most prominent states at the time but also triggered a broader period of chaos in the region, known in Ukrainian history as the "[[the Ruin (Ukrainian history)|Ruin]]", while in Polish historiography it is referred to as "the [[Deluge (history)|Deluge]]".<ref name=Serhy>{{harvnb|Yekelchyk|2007}}</ref>

[[File:Location of Cossack Hetmanate.png|left|thumb|Territory gained after the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]]]]
The establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate in 1649 marked a pivotal shift in the political landscape of [[Eastern Europe]]. Officially recognized through the [[Treaty of Zboriv]] that same year, the Hetmanate emerged as a semi-autonomous entity within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Yet, this fragile self-governance was immediately tested by a turbulent geopolitical environment. The state found itself entangled in a web of diplomatic and military conflicts involving major regional powers, including the [[Ottoman Empire]], the Commonwealth, the [[Crimean Khanate]], and the [[Tsardom of Moscow]]. For these competing entities, the Hetmanate was not just a potential ally, but also a strategic prize, which complicated its quest for sovereignty and stability.<ref name=Serhy/>

As ruler of the Hetmanate, Khmelnytsky engaged in state-building across multiple spheres: military, administration, finance, economics, and culture. He invested the [[Zaporozhian Host]] under the leadership of its hetman with supreme power in the new [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] state, and he unified all the spheres of Ukrainian society under his authority. This involved building a government system and a developed military and civilian administration out of Cossack officers and Ruthenian nobles, as well as the establishment of an elite within the Cossack Hetman state.<ref>{{Cite book|author-last=Zhukovsky |author-first=Arkadii |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages\Z\A\ZaporozhianSich.htm |title=Zaporozhian Sich |date=13 September 2015 |publisher=Encyclopedia of Ukraine}}</ref>

[[File:Rzeczpospolita Trojga Narodów w roku 1658.png|thumb|Proposed creation of tripartite [[Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth]] in 1658]]
In 1654, under the continuous pressure of Poland and in pursuit of a more secure route to sovereignty, the Cossack leadership, headed by Bohdan Khmelnytsky, entered into the [[Pereiaslav Agreement]] with the Tsardom of Russia. This pact positioned the Hetmanate under the Russian protection, signaling a significant shift in the region’s balance of power. While the agreement initially promised mutual military support and guaranteed a degree of autonomy for the [[Cossacks]], it also laid the groundwork for Russia's gradual encroachment on Ukrainian governance. Over time, the aspirations of the Hetmanate for true independence were systematically undermined, as the Tsardom’s ambitions to consolidate control over the territory took precedence.{{sfn|Magocsi|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TA1zVKTTsXUC&q=%22March+articles%22+ukraine&pg=PA227 227]}}<ref name=Serhy/>

Efforts to reclaim autonomy and negotiate favorable terms with neighboring powers continued, culminating in the 1658 [[Treaty of Hadiach]]. This ambitious agreement aimed to elevate the Hetmanate to the status of the [[Grand Principality of Rus' (1658)|Grand Principality of Rus']], an equal partner within the Commonwealth alongside Poland and Lithuania. While the treaty represented a significant step toward reconciliation, it was ultimately derailed by fierce Russian opposition and deep-seated divisions within the Ukrainian leadership. Moreover, the agreement failed to stabilize the region, as ongoing conflicts, including Russian military campaigns and internal unrest, plunged the Hetmanate into over a decade of turmoil, leaving its aspirations for autonomy unfulfilled.<ref>''Наталія Яковенко'' [http://history.franko.lviv.ua/PDF%20Final/Jakovenko.pdf "Нарис історії України з найдавніших часів до кінця ХVІІІ ст."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111052824/http://history.franko.lviv.ua/PDF%20Final/Jakovenko.pdf |date=11 November 2020 }}:  "На початку серпня 1659 р. в одному зі згаданих локальних боїв на прикордонні від рук людей Цюцюри загинув 47-річний Юрій Немирич, найосвіченіший українець, аристократ і перший канцлер задуманого ним, але так і не збудованого Великого Князівства Руського."</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://krotov.info/libr_min/28_ya/ko/vleva_t.htm |title=Т.Г.Яковлева. Гадячский договор - легенда и реальность |access-date=1 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401071028/http://krotov.info/libr_min/28_ya/ko/vleva_t.htm |archive-date=1 April 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:Partition of Ukraine after the Truce of Andrusovo (1667).jpg|left|thumb|Partition of [[Cossack Hetmanate]] after the [[Truce of Andrusovo]] in 1667]]
The [[Truce of Andrusovo]] in 1667 marked a pivotal moment in Ukrainian history, as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia formalized an agreement to partition the Hetmanate's territories along the [[Dnieper River]]. Under the terms of the treaty, [[Right-Bank Ukraine]] was returned to Polish control, while [[Left-Bank Ukraine]], including [[Kyiv]], was ceded to Russia. Although the Hetmanate retained a nominal degree of autonomy on the Left Bank, this autonomy was heavily constrained by Russian oversight. The division not only symbolized the beginning of a new long-term foreign domination of Ukrainian lands, but also violated the unity of the Cossack state. This fragmentation further weakened the Hetmanate's capacity to resist external pressures and maintain its independence, leaving it increasingly vulnerable to the ambitions of neighboring powers.<ref name=Serhy/>

The late 17th century was characterized by civil strife, foreign intervention, and territorial shifts. From 1657 to 1686, the region was embroiled in nearly constant conflict, with neighboring powers, including the Ottoman Empire, Poland, and Russia, capitalizing on Ukraine's vulnerability. During this period, [[Hetman]] [[Petro Doroshenko]], a prominent Cossack leader, sought to consolidate control over key territories such as [[Kyiv]] and [[Bratslav]]. However, his ambitions were thwarted as these areas fell under Turkish occupation, further complicating the geopolitical landscape.<ref name="Ágoston">{{cite encyclopedia |first=Gábor |last=Ágoston |title=Treaty of Karlowitz |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA309 |pages=309–10 |isbn=978-0816-06259-1 }}<!-- ISBN refers to 2008 edition; Google Books dates their copy as 2010. --></ref>

[[File:Carte d'Ukranie by Beauplan, Guillaume Le Vasseur (16..-1673), cartographer.jpg|thumb|French map of Ukraine (''Carte d'Ukranie''), by Beauplan (1600–1673), cartographer (south at the top)]]
In the broader context, the [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] in 1699 played a pivotal role in redefining territorial control. It resulted in the return of much of the land previously held by the Ottomans to Polish authority. Despite this, Ukrainian Cossack forces, especially in the frontier regions of [[Zaporozhian Sich|Zaporizhzhia]] and [[Sloboda Ukraine]], managed to maintain a degree of autonomy. Semi-independent Cossack republics in these areas continued to challenge both Polish and Russian dominance, asserting their independence and preserving distinct cultural and political identities.<ref name="Ágoston"/>

In addition to political turbulence, the Hetmanate played a pivotal role in the cultural and intellectual development of both Ukraine and Russia during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Ukrainian clerics, scholars, and intellectuals, many of whom were educated at the esteemed [[Kyiv-Mohyla Academy]], served as key agents of cultural exchange and reform. Their influence was particularly pronounced during the reign of [[Peter the Great]], as they introduced new ideas and approaches that helped modernize Russian society. Figures such as [[Theophan Prokopovich]] and [[Stefan Yavorsky]], both leading members of the [[Most Holy Synod]], played an important role in shaping religious and educational reforms in Russia. The intellectual movement often referred to as the 'Ukrainian school' left a lasting imprint on Russian literature, theology, and pedagogy, becoming a dominant force in the region's cultural landscape.<ref name=empire>{{cite book |last1=Shkandrij |first1=Myroslav |title=Russia and Ukraine. Literature and the Discourse of Empire from Napoleonic to Postcolonial Times |date=2001 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=9780773569492 |page=4 |jstor=j.ctt7zz3w |access-date=6 June 2024 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7zz3w}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Massie |first1=Robert K. |title=Peter the Great: His Life and World |date=2012 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=9780307817235 |pages=791–793}}</ref>

A critical turning point in Ukraine's religious history occurred in 1686, when the [[Metropolis of Kyiv]] was [[Annexation of the Metropolis of Kyiv by the Moscow Patriarchate|annexed]] by the [[Moscow Patriarchate]]. This event symbolized the consolidation of Moscow's influence over Ukrainian religious and cultural life. This annexation was a significant step towards the gradual erosion of Ukrainian ecclesiastical independence. Nonetheless, the Hetmanate's leadership continued to assert their autonomy, navigating complex political realities to safeguard their unique identity and governance. The interplay between cooperation and resistance defined this era, highlighting Ukraine's dual role as both a cultural sponsor of Moscovy's reforms and a defender of its own sovereignty.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yekelchyk |first=Serhy |title=Ukraine: What everyone needs to know |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2019 |isbn=9780197532102 |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=34, 65 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Marten's_Poltava.jpg|left|thumb|''The Battle of Poltava'' by [[Pierre-Denis Martin (1663–1742)|Pierre-Denis Martin]]]]
The Hetmanate reached its peak of independence under the leadership of Hetman [[Ivan Mazepa]], a complex and ambitious figure in Ukrainian history. Seeking to assert the autonomy of the Hetmanate, Mazepa pursued an alliance with the [[Swedish Empire]] during the [[Great Northern War]] (1700–1721), hoping to break free from Russian dominance. His decision to align with [[Charles XII of Sweden]] was a bold but perilous move, rooted in the desire to safeguard Ukrainian sovereignty and escape the tightening grip of Moscow.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bondar |first1=Andriy |title=Baturyn, a Small Town With a Grand History |url=https://www.kyivpost.com/post/20093 |website=[[Kyiv Post]] |date=7 August 2023}}</ref>

The turning point came in 1708, when the Moscovy's army, under orders from [[Tsar]] [[Peter the Great|Peter I]], sacked the Hetmanate's capital city, [[Baturyn]]. The brutal assault resulted in the [[Sack of Baturyn|massacre]] of thousands of defenders and civilians, with many burned alive or executed in other horrific ways. This act of retribution was a devastating blow to Mazepa's efforts, as it not only destroyed the administrative and military center of the Hetmanate but also served as a warning to other potential dissenters.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ben |first1=Bohdan |title=Baturyn massacre which brought Russian Empire to rank of global powers and destroyed Ukrainian Cossack state recalled |url=https://euromaidanpress.com/2021/11/20/baturyn-massacre-which-brought-russian-empire-to-rank-of-global-powers-and-destroyed-ukrainian-cossack-state-recalled/ |website=Euromaidan Press |date=20 November 2021}}</ref> Mazepa's rebellion culminated in the catastrophic defeat at the [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709, where the combined Swedish-Ukrainian forces were decisively crushed by Peter's army. The aftermath of Poltava marked the end of Mazepa's aspirations for Ukrainian independence and significantly tightened Russia's control over the Hetmanate. The rebellion's failure also signaled a shift in the balance of power in [[Eastern Europe]], consolidating Russia's dominance in the region and diminishing the Hetmanate's autonomy.<ref>Kamenskii, Alexander. "The Battle of Poltava in Russian Historical Memory." ''Harvard Ukrainian Studies'' 31.1/4 (2009): 195–204 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41756503 online].</ref><ref>Brown, Peter B. "Gazing Anew at Poltava: Perspectives from the Military Revolution Controversy, Comparative History, and Decision-Making Doctrines." ''Harvard Ukrainian Studies'' 31.1/4 (2009): 107–133. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41756499 online]</ref>

[[File:Ukraine 1740 kossaks map.svg|thumb|Map of the part of Ukrainian lands in the [[Russian Empire]], 1740-1750, superimposed over the territory of modern Ukraine in yellow. Grey: the [[Cossack Hetmanate|Hetmanate]]. Yellow: [[Zaporozhian Sich|Zaporizhzhia]]. Green: [[Sloboda Ukraine]]]]
After the defeat at Poltava, [[Ivan Skoropadsky]] led the Hetmanate (1708–1722) during a challenging period of diminishing autonomy. While he sought to navigate the growing pressures from Russia, his efforts were significantly undermined in 1722 when Peter I established the [[Collegium of Little Russia (1722–1727)|Little Russian Collegium]]. This administrative body, composed largely of imperial officials, was tasked with supervising the Hetmanate's governance, effectively curtailing Skoropadsky's authority and undermining traditional Cossack institutions. His death in 1722 left the Hetmanate vulnerable to further imperial centralization.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/bojko2000#page/n13/mode/2up Центральні органи Московської держави, що діяли в Гетьманщині] // Бойко І.&nbsp;Й.&nbsp;Держава і право Гетьманщини. Навчальний посібник.&nbsp;— Львів: Світ, 2000.&nbsp;— С. 14.&nbsp;— 120 с.&nbsp;— ISBN 5-7773-0374-9.</ref> Following Skoropadsky's death, [[Pavlo Polubotok]], serving as acting Hetman, attempted to resist Moscow's encroachments. Polubotok appealed to Peter I to honor the Hetmanate's earlier agreements, particularly those guaranteeing autonomy. However, his resistance led to his arrest and imprisonment in the [[Peter and Paul Fortress]], where he died in 1724. Polubotok's fate symbolized the futility of overt resistance during this phase, as the imperial government tightened its grip on the region.<ref name="КМА">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ukma.edu.ua/index.php/projectsdone/personal-grants/91-about-us/vudatni-prof-stud/142-polybotok|title= Павло Полуботок // Києво-Могилянська академія в іменах XVII—XVIII ст.|accessdate=2 February 2020|archive-date=1 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201233029/https://www.ukma.edu.ua/index.php/projectsdone/personal-grants/91-about-us/vudatni-prof-stud/142-polybotok}}</ref>

A brief resurgence of autonomy occurred under [[Danylo Apostol]] (1727–1734), whose election marked a temporary relaxation of imperial policies following Peter I's death. Apostol negotiated limited autonomy for the Hetmanate, securing greater control over local taxation and governance. He also implemented administrative and judicial reforms aimed at strengthening internal stability. Despite these achievements, Apostol's death led to another period of direct imperial administration under the [[Governing Council of the Hetman Office]], a body dominated by Russian officials. This period (1734–1750) deepened the integration of the Hetmanate into the [[History of the administrative division of Russia#Imperial Russia|imperial administrative structure]].<ref name="dict">{{cite book |last1=Katchanovski |first1=Ivan |last2=Kohut |first2=Zenon E. |last3=Nebesio |first3=Bohdan Y. |last4=Yurkevich |first4=Myroslav |title=Historical Dictionary of Ukraine |date=11 July 2013 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7847-1 |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Гетманщина18век.gif|thumb|left|Cossack Hetmanate (1750) and the Russian provinces in its place (1809)]]
In 1750, the Hetmanate was restored under [[Kyrylo Rozumovsky]], a politically savvy leader with close ties to the Russian court. Rozumovsky sought to modernize the Hetmanate by reforming its administration, judiciary, and military while working to strengthen its autonomy. He relocated the Hetmanate's capital to [[Hlukhiv]], transforming it into a political and cultural center. Rozumovsky also initiated ambitious projects, including plans to establish a university, reflecting his vision of the Hetmanate as a semi-autonomous, modernized polity within the [[Russian Empire]]. However, his growing influence and calls for greater independence alarmed [[Catherine the Great]], who was determined to centralize power.<ref>[[Oleksander Ohloblyn]]. ''[http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRozumovskyKyrylo.htm Rozumovsky, Kyrylo]''. [[Encyclopedia of Ukraine]]</ref><ref name=ehurkh>Putro, O. ''[http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?&I21DBN=EIU&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Rozumovskyj_K Kyrylo Rozumovsky (РОЗУМОВСЬКИЙ КИРИЛО ГРИГОРОВИЧ)]''. Encyclopedia of History of Ukraine.</ref>

In 1764, Catherine the Great [[Liquidation of the autonomy of the Cossack Hetmanate|formally abolished the Hetmanate]], transferring its governance to the Little Russian Collegium. This move marked the end of the Hetmanate's semi-autonomous status and its complete incorporation into the administrative structure of the Russian Empire. The abolition not only dismantled the Hetmanate's unique political and military institutions but also signified the culmination of a broader imperial strategy to suppress regional autonomy in favor of centralized governance.<ref>[[Рибалка Іван Климентійович|Рибалка I. К.]] Історія України. Частина І: Від найдавніших часів до кінця XVIII століття. Харків, «Основа», 1995.&nbsp;— 448 с. [http://readbookz.com/book/200/7637.html 2. Остаточна ліквідація царизмом автономного устрою Лівобережжя і Слобожанщини] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916083431/http://readbookz.com/book/200/7637.html|date=16 вересня 2016}}</ref>

==== Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich ====
{{See also|Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich}}
During the 18th century, the [[Russian Empire]] transitioned from providing nominal "protection" to exerting direct control over central Ukraine, progressively eroding the autonomy of the Cossacks. The Cossack uprisings, which had once been directed against the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], now shifted focus to the Russian authorities. By the late 18th century, these uprisings had largely subsided, their potency undermined by the overwhelming might of the Russian Empire and deep divisions within the Cossack leadership.<ref>Яворницький Д.І. Запорожжя в залишках старовини і переказах народу: Ч. І; Ч.ІІ. К.: Веселка, 1995. – 447 с.: іл., с. 376 – 391.</ref>

[[File:1775 Zaporizhya.png|thumb|Territories controlled by Ukrainian Cossacks at the end of their existence]]
The [[Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774]] marked a pivotal moment for the Ukrainian Cossacks and their role within the Russian Empire. The Cossacks had provided crucial support during the war, significantly contributing to Russian victories. The conflict culminated in the [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]], which granted Russia significant territorial acquisitions along the [[Black Sea]] coast, further consolidating its influence in the region. This success reduced the strategic importance of the [[Zaporozhian Sich]], as the borderlands the Cossacks had long defended were now firmly under Russian control. The geopolitical realignment weakened the Cossacks’ traditional role, setting the stage for their eventual demise.<ref>{{cite book |first=Brian L. |last=Davies |title=The Russo-Turkish War, 1768–1774 |location=New York |publisher= Bloomsbury Academic |year=2016 |isbn= 978-1-47250801-0 |page= 248}}</ref>

In 1775, Empress [[Catherine the Great]] took decisive action to eliminate what she perceived as a potential threat to her centralized rule. The Zaporozhian Sich, with its semi-autonomous status and militarized society, stood as a symbol of independence that clashed with the empire’s drive toward unification. Acting on her orders, General [[Peter Tekeli]] led a massive military force to suppress the Sich. On 15 June 1775, Tekeli’s forces, composed of 45,000 troops—including 8 cavalry regiments, 10 infantry regiments, 20 hussar squadrons, 17 pike squadrons, and 13 squadrons of [[Don Cossacks]]—overwhelmed the Sich. Defended by a mere 3,000 Cossacks, the Sich fell with little resistance. The destruction of the Zaporozhian Sich marked the end of an era, effectively dismantling one of the last vestiges of Ukrainian self-rule.<ref name=Solovyov>{{cite web
 |last       = Solov'yov V
 |title      = Конец Запорожской Сечи
 |publisher  = Кубань, XXI век
 |url        = http://www.kuban-xxi.h1.ru/history/21.shtml
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040712153329/http://kuban-xxi.h1.ru/history/21.shtml
 |url-status   = dead
 |archive-date = 12 July 2004
 |access-date = 1 October 2008
}}</ref>

The last [[Kosh Otaman]], [[Petro Kalnyshevsky]], was arrested and exiled to the [[Solovetsky Islands]] in the far north, where he spent the remainder of his life in harsh conditions, dying in captivity. Following the destruction, a smaller group of Cossacks fled to the lands of the Ottoman Empire, settling beyond the [[Danube]], where they formed the [[Danubian Sich]]. Others relocated to the [[Kuban]] region in the Russian Empire, where they helped establish the [[Kuban Cossacks|Kuban Cossack Host]]. However, the majority of the Ukrainian Cossacks were deported to remote parts of the Russian Empire, including [[Siberia]], in a move that sought to break their power and disperse their population. In addition to the loss of Cossack autonomy, the Russian troops seized over 30,000 documents, along with weapons and other valuables, representing the history of Ukraine from the 16th to the 18th centuries. These items were stored in the [[fortress of St. Elizabeth]], which had been the primary military base of the Russian Imperial Army in Ukraine. These historical artifacts remained in St. Elizabeth’s fortress until they were eventually transferred to Kyiv in 1918, providing valuable insights into the rich history of the Ukrainian Cossacks.<ref>[https://romny-vk.gov.ua/novini-mista/ostanniy-zaporizkiy-koshoviy-kalnish/ ОСТАННІЙ ЗАПОРІЗЬКИЙ КОШОВИЙ КАЛНИШЕВСЬКИЙ ОПИНИВСЯ НА СОЛОВКАХ, БО ЗАВАЖАВ ТВОРИТИ]</ref><ref>[https://m.gazeta.ua/articles/history/_ostannogo-koshovogo-vidpravili-na-solovki/918421 Останнього кошового відправили на Соловки]</ref><ref>[https://www.solovki.ca/ukrainskie_solovki/ovsienko_02.php СОЛОВКИ В ИСТОРИИ УКРАИНЫ]</ref>

[[File:CossackMamay.jpg|thumb|left|[[Cossack Mamay]] and the [[Haidamaka]] hang a Jew by his heels. Ukrainian folk art, 19th century]]
Meanwhile, in right-bank Ukraine, dissatisfaction with Polish rule had been growing for decades. Increased corvée (forced labor) obligations, along with the abuse of power by Polish magnates, nobles, and their [[History of the Jews in Ukraine|Jewish]] stewards, led to widespread unrest. The peasants, many of whom were Orthodox Christians, resented the imposition of taxes and labor on their lands, as well as the presence of Roman Catholic and [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church|Uniate]] clergy. The resulting discontent gave rise to a series of [[Haidamak]] uprisings, in which bands of rebels attacked and looted towns, targeting the estates of nobles, clergy, and Jewish populations. Major uprisings occurred in 1734, 1750, and the largest—known as [[Koliyivschyna]]—took place in 1768. This revolt was a culmination of decades of accumulated grievances, sparked by rumors of impending changes in religious and social policies that threatened the Orthodox community. The rebellion saw widespread attacks across towns and estates, resulting in significant loss of life and property. While the Haidamaks initially achieved some successes, the uprising was ultimately brutally suppressed by Polish forces with the assistance of Russian troops.<ref>[http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages\H\A\Haidamakauprisings.htm Haidamaka uprisings]</ref>

By the end of the century, Catherine the Great’s policies had reshaped the political landscape of Ukraine. The Cossack's role in defending the borderlands was no longer necessary, as the Russian Empire now controlled the Black Sea and [[Crimea]]. In 1783, the [[Crimean Khanate]] was formally [[Annexation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire|annexed by Russia]], cementing control over the northern Black Sea region. A few years earlier, in 1778, [[Emigration of Christians from the Crimea (1778)|a mass emigration of Christians from Crimea occurred]], further altering the demographic balance of the region. Finally, in 1793, following the [[Partitions of Poland|Second Partition of Poland]], right-bank Ukraine was officially incorporated into the Russian Empire. By the end of Catherine’s reign, most of Ukraine had fallen under Russian control, bringing an end to the centuries-old struggle for autonomy and leaving the Ukrainian people under the rule of the imperial power.<ref>Orest Subtelny; [https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0 ''Ukraine: A History'']; University of Toronto Press; 2000. {{ISBN|0-8020-8390-0}}. pp. 117–145; 146–148</ref>