Editing History of Mali (section)

== Independence (1960–present) ==
{{further|Mali Federation}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = {{native name|fr|République du Mali}}
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Mali
| common_name            = Mali
| image_flag             = Flag of Mali.svg
| image_coat             = Seal of Mali (1961-1982).svg
| symbol_type            = [[Coat of arms of Mali|Emblem]]
| image_map              = Mali (orthographic projection).svg
| capital                = [[Bamako]]
| national_motto         = {{native phrase|fr|"Un peuple, un but, une foi"|italics=off|nolink=on}}<br />"One people, one goal, one faith"
| national_anthem        = {{native name|fr|"[[Le Mali]]"|italic=no|nolink=on}}{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Malian national anthem, performed by the United States Navy Band.oga]]}}
| government_type        = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[one-party state|one-party]] [[socialist republic]]
| leader1                = [[Modibo Keita]]
| year_leader1           = 1960–1968
| leader2                = 
| year_leader2           = 
| leader3                = 
| year_leader3           = 
| title_leader           = [[List of heads of state of Mali|President]]
| title_representative   = [[List of prime ministers of Mali|Prime minister]]
| year_representative1   = 1960–1965
| representative1        = [[Modibo Keita]]
| year_representative2   = 1965–1968
| representative2        = ''Post abolished''
| year_representative3   = 
| representative3        = 
| year_representative4   = 
| representative4        = 
| event_start            = Independence from France
| date_start             = 20 June
| year_start             = 1960
| event_end              = [[1968 Malian coup d'état]]
| date_end               = 19 November
| era                    = [[Decolonisation of Africa]], [[Cold War]]
| year_end               = 1968
| p1                     = French Sudan
| flag_p1                = Flag of French Sudan.svg
| p2                     = Federation of Mali
| flag_p2                = Flag of Mali (1959-1961).svg
| s1                     = Second Republic of Mali (1968-1991)
| flag_s1                = Flag of Mali.svg
| today                  = [[Republic of Mali]]
| year_exile_start       = <!-- Year of start of exile (if dealing with exiled government: status="Exile") -->
| year_exile_end         = <!-- Year of end of exile (leave blank if still in exile) -->
| event1                 = <!-- Optional: other events between "start" and "end" -->
| date_event1            = 
| event2                 = Established one-party state
| date_event2            = 1960
| event3                 = [[Tuareg rebellion (1962–1964)|Tuareg rebellion]]
| date_event3            = 1962-1964
| event4                 = 
| date_event4            = 
| event5                 = 
| date_event5            = 
| event6                 = 
| date_event6            = 
| deputy1                = 
| year_deputy1           = 
| deputy2                = 
| year_deputy2           = 
| title_deputy           = 
| legislature            = [[National Assembly (Mali)|National Assembly]]
| currency               = [[West African CFA franc]]
| currency_code          = XOF
| area_km2               = 
| area_rank              = 
| area_sq_mi             = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| HDI                    = 
| HDI_year               = 
}}
Following the withdrawal of Senegal from the federation in August 1960, the former Sudanese Republic became the Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, with Modibo Keïta as president.<ref name=":1" />

President [[Modibo Keïta]], whose [[Sudanese Union-African Democratic Rally]] (US/RDA) party had dominated pre-independence politics (as a member of the [[African Democratic Rally]]), moved quickly to declare a single-party state and to pursue a [[socialist]] policy based on extensive [[nationalization]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite web|date=February 2005|title=Background Note: Mali|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2828.htm|url-status=deviated|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050216054839/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2828.htm|archive-date=February 16, 2005|publisher=[[Bureau of African Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of State]]}}}}</ref> Keïta withdrew from the French Community and also had close ties to the [[Eastern bloc]].<ref name=":1" /> A continuously deteriorating economy led to a decision to rejoin the Franc Zone in 1967 and modify some of the economic excesses.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

In 1962-64 there was the [[Tuareg rebellion (1962–1964)|Tuareg insurgency]] in northern Mali.

=== Under Moussa Traoré ===
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = {{native name|fr|République du Mali}}
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Mali
| common_name            = Mali
| image_flag             = Flag of Mali.svg
| image_coat             = Coat of arms of Mali.svg
| symbol_type            = [[Coat of arms of Mali|Emblem<br>(1973–1991)]]
| image_map              = Mali (orthographic projection).svg
| capital                = [[Bamako]]
| government_type        = [[One-party state|One-party]] [[military dictatorship]]
| leader1                = [[Moussa Traoré]]
| year_leader1           = 1968–1991
| title_leader           = [[List of heads of state of Mali|Head of State]]
| deputy1                = [[Yoro Diakité]] (''First Vice President'')
| year_deputy1           = 1968–1971
| deputy2                = [[Amadou Baba Diarra]] (''Second Vice President'')
| year_deputy3           = 1971–1991
| deputy3                = ''Vacant'' (''First Vice President'')
| year_deputy4           = 1979–1991
| deputy4                = ''Vacant'' (''Second Vice President'')
| year_deputy2           = 1968–1979
| title_representative   = [[Prime Minister of Mali|Prime Minister]]
| year_representative1   = 1968–1969
| representative1        = [[Yoro Diakité]]
| year_representative2   = 1969–1986
| representative2        = ''Post abolished''
| year_representative3   = 1986–1988
| representative3        = [[Mamadou Dembelé]]
| year_representative4   = 1988–1991
| representative4        = ''Post abolished''
| title_deputy           = [[Vice President of Mali|Vice President]]
| event_start            = [[1968 Malian coup d'état|Established]]
| date_start             = 19 November
| year_start             = 1968
| event_end              = [[1991 Malian coup d'état|Disestablished]]
| date_end               = 26 March
| p1                     = First Republic of Mali (1960–1968)
| s1                     = Republic of Mali
| flag_p1                = Flag of Mali.svg
| year_end               = 1991
| currency               = 
| flag_s1                = Flag of Mali.svg
| today                  = [[Republic of Mali]]
}}

On November 19, 1968, a group of young officers staged a bloodless coup and set up a 14-member Military Committee for National Liberation (CMLN), with Lt. [[Moussa Traoré]] as president.<ref name=":1" /> The military leaders attempted to pursue economic reforms, but for several years faced debilitating internal political struggles and the disastrous Sahelian drought.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

A new constitution, approved in 1974, created a one-party state and was designed to move Mali toward civilian rule.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> However, the military leaders remained in power.<ref name=":2" /> In September 1976, a new political party was established, the [[Democratic Union of the Malian People]] (UDPM), based on the concept of [[democratic centralism]].<ref name=":2" /> Single-party presidential and legislative elections were held in June 1979, and Gen. Moussa Traoré received 99% of the votes.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> His efforts at consolidating the single-party government were challenged in 1980 by student-led anti-government demonstrations that led to three coup attempts, which were brutally quashed.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

The political situation stabilized during 1981 and 1982 and remained generally calm throughout the 1980s.<ref name=":2" /> In late December 1985, however, a border dispute between Mali and [[Burkina Faso]] over the mineral-rich [[Agacher Strip War|Agacher strip]] erupted into a brief war.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Burkina Faso: A Small West African Country Struggles to Bring Peace to Mali |url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/burkina-faso-small-west-african-country-struggles-bring-peace-mali}}</ref> The UDPM spread its structure to [[Cercle (French colonial)|cercle]]s and arrondissements across the land.<ref name=":2" />

Shifting its attention to Mali's economic difficulties, the government approved plans for some reforms of the state enterprise system and attempted to control public corruption.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> It implemented cereal marketing liberalization,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Cereals Market Liberalization in Mali |journal=World Development|volume= 17 |issue=5 |pages=703–718 |year=1989 |first1=John M. |last1=Staatz |first2=Josue |last2=Dione |first3=N. |last3=Nango Dembele|doi=10.1016/0305-750X(89)90069-7 }}</ref> created new incentives to private enterprise, and worked out a new structural adjustment agreement with the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> But the populace became increasingly dissatisfied with the austerity measures imposed by the IMF plan as well as their perception that the ruling elite was not subject to the same strictures.<ref name=":1" /> In response to the growing demands for multiparty democracy then sweeping the continent, the Traoré regime did allow some limited political liberalization.<ref name=":1" /> In National Assembly elections in June 1988, multiple UDPM candidates were permitted to contest each seat, and the regime organized nationwide conferences to consider how to implement democracy within the one-party framework.<ref name=":1" /> Nevertheless, the regime refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system.<ref name=":1" />

By 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, including the National Democratic Initiative Committee and the [[Alliance for Democracy in Mali]] (Alliance pour la Démocratie au Mali, ADEMA).<ref name=":1" /> The increasingly turbulent political situation was complicated by the rise of ethnic violence in the north in mid-1990.<ref name=":1" /> The return to Mali of large numbers of [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] who had migrated to [[Algeria]] and [[Libya]] during the prolonged drought increased tensions in the region between the nomadic Tuareg and the sedentary population.<ref name=":1" /> Ostensibly fearing a Tuareg secessionist movement in the north, the Traoré regime imposed a state of emergency and harshly repressed Tuareg unrest.<ref name=":1" /> Despite the signing of a peace accord in January 1991, unrest and periodic armed clashes continued.<ref name=":1" />

=== 2000s ===
Konaré stepped down after his constitutionally mandated limit of two terms and did not run in the 2002 elections.<ref name=":1" /> Touré then reemerged, this time as a civilian.<ref name=":1" /> Running as an independent on a platform of national unity, Touré won the presidency in a runoff against the candidate of Adema, which had been divided by infighting and suffered from the creation of a spin-off party, the [[Rassemblement pour le Mali|Rally for Mali]]. Touré had retained great popularity because of his role in the transitional government in 1991–92.<ref name=":1" /> The 2002 election was a milestone, marking Mali's first successful transition from one democratically elected president to another, despite the persistence of electoral irregularities and low voter turnout.<ref name=":1" /> In the 2002 legislative elections, no party gained a majority; Touré then appointed a politically inclusive government and pledged to tackle Mali's pressing social and economic development problems.<ref name=":1" />

===2010s===
{{further|Mali War}}
In January 2012, the [[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]] (MNLA) [[2012 insurgency in the Azawad|began an insurgency]].<ref>[http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/Mali-clashes-force-120-000-from-homes-20120222 Mali clashes force 120 000 from homes]. News24 (2012-02-22). Retrieved on: 23 Feb 2012.</ref> Rebel troops from the military appeared on state TV on 22 March 2012 announcing they had [[2012 Mali coup d'état attempt|seized control of the country]],<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17462111 Post-coup Mali hit with sanctions by African neighbours – Globe and Mail]. Bbc.co.uk (2012-03-22). Retrieved on 2012-05-04.</ref> citing unrest over the president's handling of the conflict with the rebels. The former president was forced into hiding.

However, due to the [[2012 insurgency in northern Mali]], the military government controlled only the southern third of the country, leaving the north of the country (known as [[Azawad]]) to MNLA rebels. The rebels controlled Timbuktu, 700&nbsp;km from the capital.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17576725 BBC News – Mali Tuareg rebels control Timbuktu as troops flee]. Bbc.co.uk (2012-04-02). Retrieved on 2012-05-04.</ref> In response, the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS) froze assets and imposed an embargo, leaving some with only days of fuel. Mali was dependent on fuel imports trucked overland from [[Senegal]] and [[Ivory Coast]].<ref>[https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/post-coup-mali-hit-with-sanctions-by-african-neighbours/article2390504/ Post-coup Mali hit with sanctions by African neighbours]. Theglobeandmail.com (2012-04-03). Retrieved on 2012-05-04.</ref>

On July 17, 2012, the [[Tuareg Rebellion (2012)|Tuareg rebels]] were pushed out by their allies, the [[Islamists]], [[Ansar Dine]], and [[Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb|Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (A.Q.I.M.)]].<ref name="Nossiter">{{cite news|last=Nossiter|first=Adam|title=Jihadists' Fierce Justice Drives Thousands to Flee Mali|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 18, 2012}}</ref> An extremist ministate in northern Mali was the unexpected result from the collapse of the earlier [[coup d'etat]] by the angry army officers.<ref name="Nossiter"/>

Refugees in the 92,000-person refugee camp at [[Mbera]], [[Mauritania]], described the Islamists as "intent on imposing an Islam of lash and gun on Malian Muslims."<ref name="Nossiter"/> The Islamists in Timbuktu destroyed about a half-dozen venerable above-ground tombs of revered holy men, proclaiming the tombs contrary to [[Shariah]].<ref name="Nossiter"/> One refugee in the camp spoke of encountering Afghans, Pakistanis and Nigerians.<ref name="Nossiter"/>

[[Ramtane Lamamra]], the [[African Union]]'s peace and security commissioner, said the African Union discussed sending a military force to reunify Mali and that negotiations with terrorists had been ruled out but negotiations with other armed factions were still open.<ref name="Nossiter"/>

On 10 December 2012 Prime Minister [[Cheick Modibo Diarra]] was arrested by soldiers and taken to a military base in [[Kati, Mali|Kati]].<ref name="AP 10">{{cite news|title=Mali's PM arrested by junta|url=http://www.bostonherald.com/news/international/asia_pacific/view/20121210malis_pm_arrested_by_junta/srvc=home&position=recent|access-date=11 December 2012|agency=Associated Press|date=10 December 2012}}</ref> Hours later, the Prime Minister announced his resignation and the resignation of his government on national television.<ref name="AFP 10">{{cite news|title=Mali PM resigns after being arrested by troops|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hrZo4r-Mz8yfVDSIB1tYxWCFLupw?docId=CNG.924cb15c775e21276db5cd9e029672d3.a1|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103033435/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hrZo4r-Mz8yfVDSIB1tYxWCFLupw?docId=CNG.924cb15c775e21276db5cd9e029672d3.a1|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 3, 2013|access-date=11 December 2012|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=10 December 2012}}</ref>

On 10 January 2013, Islamist forces captured the strategic town of [[Konna]], located 600&nbsp;km from the capital, from the Malian army.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mali-rebels-idUSBRE90912Q20130110 | title=Mali Islamists capture strategic town, residents flee | work=Reuters | date=10 January 2013 | access-date=10 January 2013}}</ref> The following day, the French military launched [[Opération Serval]], intervening in the conflict.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2013/01/12/la-france-demande-une-acceleration-de-la-mise-en-place-de-la-force-internationale-au-mali_1816033_3212.html |title=Mali – la France a mené une série de raids contre les islamistes |date=12 January 2013 |work=Le Monde |access-date=2013-01-13}}</ref>

By 8 February, the Islamist-held territory had been re-taken by the Malian military, with help from the international coalition. Tuareg separatists have continued to fight the Islamists as well, although the [[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad|MNLA]] has also been accused of carrying out attacks against the Malian military.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130322/five-malians-killed-ambush-blamed-tuareg-army |title=Five Malians killed in ambush blamed on Tuareg: army |agency=AFP |date=22 March 2013 |access-date=23 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525230652/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130322/five-malians-killed-ambush-blamed-tuareg-army |archive-date=25 May 2013 }}</ref>

A peace deal between the government and Tuareg rebels was signed on 18 June 2013.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mali and Tuareg rebels sign peace deal |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-22961519 |work=BBC News |date=18 June 2013}}</ref>

[[Malian presidential election, 2013|Presidential elections]] were held in [[Mali]] on 28 July 2013, with a second round run-off held on 11 August.<ref>[http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/05/201352814129579842.html Mali sets date for presidential election] Al Jazeera, 28 May 2013</ref> [[Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta]] defeated [[Soumaïla Cissé]] in the run-off to become the new [[President of Mali]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ibrahim Boubacar Keita wins Mali presidential election |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23677124 |work=BBC News |date=13 August 2013}}</ref>

The peace deal between the Tuareg rebels and the Malian government was broken in late November 2013 because of clashes in the northern city of [[Kidal]].<ref name="http">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25161049 |title=Tuareg separatist group in Mali 'ends ceasefire' |agency=BBC |date=29 November 2013 |access-date=28 December 2013 |work=BBC News |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202065114/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25161049 |archive-date=2 December 2013 }}</ref> A new ceasefire was agreed upon on 20 February 2015 between the Malian government and the northern rebels.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-31544438|title=Mali signs UN ceasefire to end conflict with northern rebels|newspaper=BBC News|date=20 February 2015}}</ref>

In August 2018, President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita was re-elected for a new five-year term after winning the second round of the [[2018 Malian presidential election|election]] against Soumaïla Cissé.<ref>{{cite news |title=Incumbent President Keita wins re-election in Mali |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20180816-mali-incumbent-president-ibraham-boubacar-keita-wins-election |work=France 24 |date=16 August 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

===2020s===
On 5 June 2020 [[2020 Malian protests|street protests]] calling for the resignation of President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta began in [[Bamako]]. On 18 August 2020 [[2020 Malian coup d'état|mutinying soldiers]] arrested President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister [[Boubou Cissé]]. President Keïta resigned and left the country. The [[National Committee for the Salvation of the People]] led by Colonel [[Assimi Goïta]] took power. This was the fourth coup since independence from France in 1960.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54134614| title = Mali coup: Military agrees to 18-month transition government | work = BBC News| date = 12 September 2020}}</ref> On 12 September 2020, the National Committee for the Salvation of the People agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|date=28 January 2021|title=Mali: President Bah N'Daw decrees the dissolution of the CNSP|url=http://www.theafricareport.com/62102/mali-president-bah-ndaw-decrees-the-dissolution-of-the-cnsp/|website=The Africa Report.com}}</ref> Shortly after, [[Bah Ndaw|Bah N'Daw]] was named interim president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mali: Bah N'Daw sworn in as interim president |date=25 September 2020 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/mali-bah-ndaw-sworn-in-as-interim-president/a-55052414 |work=dw.com |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=27 July 2024}}</ref>

On May 25, 2021, Colonel Assimi Goïta [[2021 Malian coup d'état|dismissed the transitional president Bah N'Daw and the transitional prime minister Moctar Ouane from their positions]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Mali's coup leader Assimi Goïta seizes power again |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-57239805 |work=BBC News |date=25 May 2021}}</ref> On 7 June 2021, Mali's military commander Assimi Goita was sworn into office as the new interim president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mali's military leader Goita sworn in as transitional president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/7/assimi-goita-mali-military-leader-sworn-in-as-interim-president |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> According to [[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW) Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from the [[Wagner Group|Wagner group]] executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022. France had withdrawn French troops from Mali in February 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mali troops and suspected Russian fighters accused of massacre |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-60997602 |work=BBC News |date=5 April 2022}}</ref>

In 2023, there was a proposal from [[Burkina Faso]] to establish a federation with Mali. The aim of the federation was to amplify the political and economic influence of both nations by combining their resources, territories, and populations. This initiative was part of a larger trend of African countries forming regional alliances to address shared challenges and advance their collective interests. The proposal faced criticism and opposition due to concerns over cultural, historical, and economic differences between the two countries, as well as issues regarding the distribution of power and resources and the potential loss of national sovereignty.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-02 |title=Burkina urges 'federation' with Mali for joint clout |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20230202-burkina-urges-federation-with-mali-for-joint-clout |access-date=2023-02-03 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref>
{{Further|Battle of the Wagadou Forest (2024)}}