Editing Hijab (section)

==Around the world==
{{Further|Hijab by country}}
[[File:Hijabdfvsdf.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|Map showing prevalence of hijab wearing across the world and indicating countries where there are restrictions on wearing it]]
Some governments encourage and even oblige women to wear the hijab, while others have banned it in at least some public settings. In many parts of the world women also experience informal pressure for or against wearing the hijab, including physical attacks.

===Legal enforcement===
In [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]], there was a campaign by religious conservatives such as [[Hamas]] to impose the hijab on women during the [[First Intifada]]. In 1990, the [[Unified National Leadership of the Uprising]] (UNLU) declared that it rejected the imposition of a hijab policy for women, and targeted those who seek to impose the hijab, but that declaration was argued to have come too late, as many women had already yielded to the pressure in order to avoid harassment.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://merip.org/1990/05/women-the-hijab-and-the-intifada/|title=Women, the Hijab and the Intifada|date=4 May 1990}}</ref> After [[Battle of Gaza (2007)|assuming the government in the Gaza Strip]] in June 2007, Hamas sought to enforce Islamic law, imposing the hijab on women at courts, institutions and schools.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Milton-Edwards |first1=Beverley |last2=Farrell |first2=Stephen |title=Hamas: The Islamic Resistance Movement |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozLNNbwqlAEC&q=Gaza+Hamas+hijab+women&pg=PT184 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2010 |isbn=9780745654683}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Fedorak |first=Shirley A. |title=Anthropology Matters |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X5JeG0ZaqBQC&q=Gaza+Hamas+hijab+women&pg=PA172 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2012 |page=172 |isbn=9781442605930}}</ref>

[[Iran]] transitioned from banning veils in 1936 to mandating Islamic dress for women following the 1979 Islamic Revolution.<ref name="Ramezani10">Ramezani, Reza (spring 2007). [http://www.magiran.com/view.asp?Type=pdf&ID=429897 ''Hijab dar Iran az Enqelab-e Eslami ta payan Jang-e Tahmili''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302023158/http://www.magiran.com/view.asp?Type=pdf&ID=429897 |date=2 March 2019 }} ''[Hijab in Iran from the Islamic Revolution to the end of the Imposed war]'' (Persian), Faslnamah-e Takhassusi-ye Banuvan-e Shi’ah [Quarterly Journal of Shiite Women] '''4''':11, Qom: Muassasah-e Shi’ah Shinasi, pp. 251-300, {{ISSN|1735-4730}}</ref> By 1980, veiling was required in government and educational settings, with the 1983 penal code imposing 74 lashes for not adhering to the hijab, though the exact requirements were unclear.<ref name="Ramezani10" /><ref name="bucar">{{cite book|title=Creative Conformity: The Feminist Politics of U.S. Catholic and Iranian Shi'i Women|author=Elizabeth M. Bucar|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQVxVEldP0sC&pg=PA118|page=118|isbn=9781589017528}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Islamic Parliament Research Center|title=قانون مجازات اسلامی (Islamic Penal Code), see ‌ماده 102 (article 102)|access-date=12 October 2016|url=http://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/90789|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012181712/http://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/90789|archive-date=12 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> This led to public tensions and vigilante actions regarding proper hijab.<ref name="Ramezani10" /><ref name="bucar" /> Subsequent regulations in 1984 and 1988 clarified dress-code standards, and the current penal code prescribes fines or prison terms for failing to observe hijab, without detailing its specific form.<ref name="Ramezani10" /><ref name="kelly-breslin">{{cite book|title=Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Progress Amid Resistance|author1=Sanja Kelly |author2=Julia Breslin|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4ZkIzcLVZsC&pg=PA126|page=126|isbn=9781442203976}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Space, Culture, and the Youth in Iran: Observing Norm Creation Processes at the Artists' House|author=Behnoosh Payvar|publisher=Springer|year=2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJukCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT73|page=73|isbn=9781137525703}}</ref>
[[File:Irán (RPS 16-10-2019) comprando en el bazar.jpg|thumb|200px|Women wearing [[chador]]s in [[Shiraz]], Iran]]

The enforcement of the dress code in Iran has fluctuated between strict and relaxed over the years, leading to ongoing debate between conservatives and reformists like [[Hassan Rouhani]].<ref name="kelly-breslin" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Who are Islamic 'morality police'?|publisher=BBC|author=BBC Monitoring|date=22 April 2016|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36101150|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413170252/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36101150|archive-date=13 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The United Nations Human Rights Council has urged Iran to uphold the rights of those advocating for dress code reforms.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ohchr.org/FR/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23947&LangID=E|title=Iran must protect women's rights advocates|publisher=UN OHCHR|date=6 May 2019}}</ref> The government officially promotes stricter veiling, citing both Islamic principles and pre-Islamic Iranian culture.<ref>''Strategies for promotion of chastity'' (Persian), the official website of Iranian Majlis (04/05/1384 AP, [http://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/101228 available online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019004938/http://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/101228 |date=19 October 2017 }})</ref>

[[Ruhollah Khomeini]] maintained that women do not have to wear a full-body cover. He stated that women can choose any kind of attire they like so long as it covers them properly and they have a hijab. His successor, [[Ali Khamenei]], stated that the hijab does not hinder participation in social, political, or academic activities.<ref name="iranprimer.usip.org"/> In 2024, the former [[president of Iran]] Hassan Rouhani criticised the reinstatement of [[Guidance Patrol|Iran's morality police]] and the implementation of the "Noor plan" by law enforcement authorities. He expressed shock over the hijab law approved by the [[Guardian Council]] which predicted severe punishment for those violating it, saying that it "aligns neither with the [[Constitution of Iran|Constitution]], nor with justice, nor with the [[Quran|Qur'an]] and [[Islamic culture]]."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iranintl.com/en/202405013051 | title=Ex-Iran President Rouhani Criticizes Reinstatement of Morality Police | date=May 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iranintl.com/en/202412182980 | title=Former Iranian President Rouhani: Hijab law neither just, Islamic, nor constitutional | date=18 December 2024 }}</ref>

The Indonesian province of [[Aceh]] encourages Muslim women to wear hijab in public.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/indonesia|title=2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Indonesia|year=2022|publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref><ref name="aceh">{{cite news|title=Ban on outdoor music concerts in West Aceh due to Sharia law|author=Jewel Topsfield|date=7 April 2016|newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/ban-on-outdoor-music-concerts-in-west-aceh-due-to-sharia-law-20160406-gnzvna.html|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826002321/http://www.smh.com.au/world/ban-on-outdoor-music-concerts-in-west-aceh-due-to-sharia-law-20160406-gnzvna.html|archive-date=26 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Government of Indonesia|Indonesia's central government]] granted Aceh's local government the right to impose [[Sharia]] in 2001, although that no local regulations should conflict with Indonesian national laws, in a deal aiming to put an end to the separatist movement in the province.<ref name="aceh" />

[[Saudi Arabia]] formally required women to cover their hair and wear a full-body garment, though enforcement varies.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mail|first=Daily|date=15 September 2019|title=Rebel Saudi women appear in public without hijab, abaya; onlookers stunned {{!}} New Straits Times|url=https://www.nst.com.my/world/world/2019/09/521602/rebel-saudi-women-appear-public-without-hijab-abaya-onlookers-stunned|access-date=29 March 2021|website=NST Online}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Nic Robertson|title=Saudi Arabia has changed beyond recognition. But will tourists want to visit?|date=5 December 2020 |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/saudi-arabia-fun-tourists/index.html|access-date=2021-03-29|publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref name="TheNewArab">{{cite news|last=|first=|date=20 Mar 2018|title=Coverings for women 'not mandatory', says Saudi crown prince ahead of US charm offensive|newspaper=The New Arab (Al-Araby Al-Jadeed)|url=https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2018/3/20/abayas-not-mandatory-for-women-says-saudi-crown-prince|url-status=live|access-date=1 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102050618/https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2018/3/20/abayas-not-mandatory-for-women-says-saudi-crown-prince|archive-date=2 January 2019|quote=Islamic clothing in Saudi Arabia is compulsory, but the crown prince has claimed this does not have to the case so long as women maintain a modest appearance in public. Saudi Arabia requires women to wear the black robe and hijab by law.}}</ref> Saudi women typically wear the abaya, while foreigners may choose long coats.<ref name="economist-saudi"/> Regulations are enforced by religious police, which once faced criticism for their role in a fire rescue where schoolgirls' lack of hijabs was reportedly a factor, leading to 15 deaths.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1874471.stm |publisher=BBC News |title=Saudi police 'stopped' fire rescue |date=15 March 2002 |access-date=14 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109001148/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1874471.stm |archive-date=9 January 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> 

During the [[Taliban]] regime in [[Afghanistan]], the wearing of the hijab is mandated for women. The requirement extends to covering not only their heads but also their faces, as it was believed that doing so would prevent any perceived impropriety and maintain modesty in society.<ref name="Gohari">M. J. Gohari (2000). ''The Taliban: Ascent to Power''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110.</ref>

===Legal bans===
==== Muslim world ====
The tradition of veiling hair in [[Culture of Iran|Persian culture]] has ancient pre-Islamic origins,<ref>{{Iranica|clothing-ii|CLOTHING ii. In the Median and Achaemenid periods}}</ref> but the widespread custom was ended by [[Reza Shah]]'s government in 1936, as the hijab was considered to be incompatible with modernization and he ordered "unveiling" act or [[Kashf-e hijab]]. In some cases the police arrested women who wore the veil and would forcibly remove it. These policies had popular support but outraged the [[Shi'a]] clerics, to whom appearing in public without their cover was tantamount to nakedness. Some women refused to leave the house out of fear of being assaulted by Reza Shah's police.<ref>El-Guindi, Fadwa, ''Veil: Modesty, Privacy, and Resistance'', Berg, 1999</ref> In 1941, the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned.

[[Turkey]] had a ban on headscarves at universities until recently. In 2008, the Turkish government attempted to lift a ban on Muslim headscarves at universities, but were overturned by the country's Constitutional Court.<ref>{{cite news | title=Turkey's AKP discusses hijab ruling | url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2008/06/200861503343579739.html | work=Al Jazeera | date=6 June 2008 | access-date=6 January 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801095423/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2008/06/200861503343579739.html | archive-date=1 August 2018 | url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2010, however, the Turkish government ended the headscarf ban in universities and schools.<ref name=":0">{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11880622 |publisher=BBC News | title=Quiet end to Turkey's college headscarf ban | date=31 December 2010 | access-date=21 July 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628151715/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11880622 | archive-date=28 June 2018 | url-status=live}}</ref> The ban for civil servants remains in place.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |author=Ömer Taşpınar |date=1 April 2012 |title=Islamist Politics in Turkey: The New Model? |url=http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2012/04/24-turkey-new-model-taspinar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150816032456/http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2012/04/24-turkey-new-model-taspinar |archive-date=2015-08-16 |access-date=7 June 2015 |publisher=The Brookings Institution}}</ref>

In [[Tunisia]], women were banned from wearing the hijab in state offices in 1981; in the 1980s and 1990s, more restrictions were put in place.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=49443 |title=Tunisia's Hijab Ban Unconstitutional |date=11 October 2007 |access-date=20 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720192643/http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=49443 |archive-date=20 July 2013}}</ref>

In June 2024, Tajikistan's parliament passed a bill banning "foreign clothing" and religious celebrations for children during the Islamic holidays of [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Eid al-Adha]]. The upper house, Majlisi Milli, approved the legislation on 19 June, following approval by the lower house, Majlisi Namoyandagon, on 8 May. The bill specifically targets the hijab, a traditional Islamic headscarf. This formalization of restrictions comes after years of Tajikistan unofficially discouraging Islamic attire, including headscarves and bushy beards.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Hijab ban: Tajikistan parliament approves bill prohibiting alien garments and Eid celebrations by children |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/hijab-ban-tajikistan-parliament-approves-bill-prohibiting-alien-garments-and-eid-celebrations-by-children-11718932757680.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240622012622/https://www.livemint.com/news/hijab-ban-tajikistan-parliament-approves-bill-prohibiting-alien-garments-and-eid-celebrations-by-children-11718932757680.html |archive-date=2024-06-22 |access-date=2024-06-23 |work=Mint}}</ref> In 2007, the Ministry of Education banned both Islamic clothing and Western-style miniskirts in schools, a policy later extended to all public institutions. Minister of Culture [[Shamsiddin Orumbekzoda]] told [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|Radio Free Europe]] that Islamic dress was "really dangerous". Under previous laws, women wearing hijabs are already banned from entering the country's government offices.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/tajikstan-muslim-hijabs-stop-women-law-headscarfs-central-asia-islam-a7923886.html| title=Country passes law 'to stop Muslim women wearing hijabs'| website=[[The Independent]]| date=September 2017| access-date=28 August 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906141934/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/tajikstan-muslim-hijabs-stop-women-law-headscarfs-central-asia-islam-a7923886.html| archive-date=6 September 2017| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.upi.com/Majority-Muslim-Tajikistan-passes-law-to-discourage-wearing-of-hijabs/8371504484941/ | title=Majority-Muslim Tajikistan passes law to discourage wearing of hijabs | access-date=28 August 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829072235/https://www.upi.com/Majority-Muslim-Tajikistan-passes-law-to-discourage-wearing-of-hijabs/8371504484941/ | archive-date=29 August 2018 | url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Europe ====
[[File:Hujum.png|thumb|right|A veil-burning ceremony in USSR as part of Soviet [[Hujum|Hujum policies]]]]
In the former [[Soviet Union]], a broad atheistic [[Sovietization]] campaign was undertaken by the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] to remove all manifestations of [[gender inequality]] within the [[Soviet Central Asia|Union Republics of Central Asia]], targeting prevalent practices among [[Islam in the Soviet Union|Soviet Muslims]], such as [[Women in Islam#Dress code|female veiling practices]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Northrop |first=Douglas |year=2001a |title=Subaltern dialogues: subversion and resistance in Soviet Uzbek family law |journal=[[Slavic Review]] |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=115–139 |doi=10.2307/2697646 |jstor=2697646 |s2cid=147540996 |ref=Subaltern}}</ref>

On 15 March 2004, France passed [[French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools|a law]] banning "symbols or clothes through which students conspicuously display their religious affiliation" in public primary schools, middle schools, and secondary schools. In the Belgian city of [[Maaseik]], the niqāb has been banned since 2006.<ref>{{Cite news
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612221543/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4616664.stm |archive-date=12 June 2018
|first=Mark | last=Mardell
|date=2006-01-16|title=Dutch MPs to decide on burqa ban|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4616664.stm|access-date=2023-01-02}}</ref> On 13 July 2010, France's lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a bill that would ban wearing the Islamic full veil in public. It became the first European country to ban the full-face veil in public places,<ref name="Austria" /> followed by Belgium, Latvia, Bulgaria, Austria, Denmark and some cantons of Switzerland in the following years.

Belgium banned the full-face veil in 2011 in places like parks and on the streets. In September 2013, the electors of the Swiss canton of Ticino voted in favour of a ban on face veils in public areas.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-13038095|title=The Islamic veil across Europe|date=2017|publisher=BBC News|access-date=5 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209161441/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-13038095|archive-date=9 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2016, Latvia and Bulgaria banned the burqa in public places.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/islamic-muslim-face-veil-niqab-burqa-banned-latvia-despite-being-worn-by-just-three-women-entire-a6993991.html|title=A European government has banned Islamic face veils despite them being worn by just three women|date=21 April 2016|work=The Independent|access-date=5 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121050903/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/islamic-muslim-face-veil-niqab-burqa-banned-latvia-despite-being-worn-by-just-three-women-entire-a6993991.html|archive-date=21 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/bulgaria-burka-ban-benefits-cut-burkini-niqab-a7340601.html|title=Another European country just banned the burqa|date=1 October 2016|work=The Independent|access-date=5 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225165528/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/bulgaria-burka-ban-benefits-cut-burkini-niqab-a7340601.html|archive-date=25 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2017, wearing a face veil became also illegal in Austria. This ban also includes scarves, masks and clown paint that cover faces to avoid discriminating against Muslim dress.<ref name="Austria">{{cite news|newspaper=USA Today|author=Köksal Baltaci|title=Austria becomes latest European country to ban burqas — but adds clown face paint, too|date=27 September 2017|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2017/09/27/austria-becomes-latest-european-country-ban-burqas-but-adds-clown-face-paint-too/699273001/|access-date=29 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224065810/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2017/09/27/austria-becomes-latest-european-country-ban-burqas-but-adds-clown-face-paint-too/699273001/|archive-date=24 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2016, Bosnia-Herzegovina's supervising judicial authority upheld a ban on wearing Islamic headscarves in courts and legal institutions, despite protests from the Muslim community that constitutes 40% of the country.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35518768|title=Bosnian women protest at headscarf ban|date=7 February 2016|publisher=BBC News|access-date=5 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316232112/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35518768|archive-date=16 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Bosnia Judicial Authorities Uphold Hijab Ban, Despite Protests|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/bosnia-judiciary-upholds-ban-on-hijab-despite-protests/27545654.html|newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=11 February 2016 |access-date=5 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205130050/https://www.rferl.org/a/bosnia-judiciary-upholds-ban-on-hijab-despite-protests/27545654.html|archive-date=5 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2017, the [[European Court of Justice]] ruled that companies were allowed to bar employees from wearing visible religious symbols, including the hijab. However, if the company has no policy regarding the wearing of clothes that demonstrate religious and political ideas, a customer cannot ask employees to remove the clothing item.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rankin |first1=Jennifer |last2=Oltermann |first2=Philip |title=Europe's right hails EU court's workplace headscarf ban ruling |url=https://www.theguardian.com/law/2017/mar/14/employers-can-ban-staff-from-wearing-headscarves-european-court-rules |url-status=live |work=The Guardian |date=14 March 2017 |access-date=5 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206073507/https://www.theguardian.com/law/2017/mar/14/employers-can-ban-staff-from-wearing-headscarves-european-court-rules |archive-date=6 February 2018}}</ref> In 2018, the Danish parliament passed a law banning the full-face veil in public places.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/may/31/denmark-passes-law-banning-burqa-and-niqab|title=Denmark passes law banning burqa and niqab|last=Staff and agencies|date=31 May 2018|journal=The Guardian|access-date=15 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815112801/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/may/31/denmark-passes-law-banning-burqa-and-niqab|archive-date=15 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2016, more than 20 French towns banned the use of the [[burqini]], a style of swimwear intended to accord with rules of hijab.<ref name="rubin">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/25/world/europe/france-burkini.html|title=French 'Burkini' Bans Provoke Backlash as Armed Police Confront Beachgoers|author=ALISSA J. RUBIN|date=24 August 2016|newspaper=New York Times|access-date=27 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301105413/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/25/world/europe/france-burkini.html|archive-date=1 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-37056742|title=Cannes bans burkinis over suspected link to radical Islamism|date=12 August 2016|publisher=BBC News|access-date=12 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812123418/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-37056742|archive-date=12 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thelocal.fr/20160819/nice-joins-list-of-french-towns-to-ban-burqini|title=Nice joins growing list of French towns to ban burqini|date=19 August 2016|work=The Local.fr|access-date=22 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822152038/http://www.thelocal.fr/20160819/nice-joins-list-of-french-towns-to-ban-burqini|archive-date=22 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Dozens of women were subsequently issued fines, with some tickets citing not wearing "an outfit respecting good morals and secularism", and some were verbally attacked by bystanders when they were confronted by the police.<ref name="rubin" /><ref name="Cockburn">{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/burkini-swimwear-ban-france-nice-armed-police-hijab-muslim-a7206776.html|title=Burkini ban: Armed police force woman to remove her clothing on Nice beach|author=Harry Cockburn|date=24 August 2016|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=28 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208042912/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/burkini-swimwear-ban-france-nice-armed-police-hijab-muslim-a7206776.html|archive-date=8 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Quinn">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/24/french-police-make-woman-remove-burkini-on-nice-beach|title=French police make woman remove clothing on Nice beach following burkini ban|author=Ben Quinn|date=23 August 2016|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=24 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218114654/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/24/french-police-make-woman-remove-burkini-on-nice-beach|archive-date=18 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="row-escalates">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/24/french-burkini-ban-row-escalates-clothing-incident-woman-police-nice-beach|title=French burkini ban row escalates after clothing incident at Nice beach|author=Angelique Chrisafis|date=24 August 2016|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=24 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127154804/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/24/french-burkini-ban-row-escalates-clothing-incident-woman-police-nice-beach|archive-date=27 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Enforcement of the ban also hit beachgoers wearing a wide range of modest attire besides the burqini.<ref name="rubin" /><ref name="row-escalates" /> Media reported that in one case the police forced a woman to remove part of her clothing on a beach in Nice.<ref name="Cockburn" /><ref name="Quinn" /><ref name="row-escalates" /> The Nice mayor's office denied that she was forced to do so and the mayor condemned what he called the "unacceptable provocation" of wearing such clothes in the aftermath of the [[2016 Nice truck attack|Nice terrorist attack]].<ref name="rubin" /><ref name="row-escalates" />

A team of psychologists in Belgium have investigated, in two studies of 166 and 147 participants, whether the Belgians' discomfort with the Islamic hijab, and the support of its ban from the country's public sphere, is motivated by the defence of the values of autonomy and universalism (which includes equality), or by xenophobia/ethnic prejudice and by anti-religious sentiments. The studies have revealed the effects of subtle prejudice/racism, values (self-enhancement values and security versus universalism), and religious attitudes (literal anti-religious thinking versus spirituality), in predicting greater levels of anti-veil attitudes beyond the effects of other related variables such as age and political conservatism.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.02.005|title = Host society's dislike of the Islamic veil: The role of subtle prejudice, values, and religion| journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations| volume=33| issue=5| pages=419–428|year = 2009|last1 = Saroglou|first1 = Vassilis| last2=Lamkaddem| first2=Bahija| last3=Van Pachterbeke| first3=Matthieu| last4=Buxant| first4=Coralie| citeseerx=10.1.1.471.6175}}</ref>

In 2019, Austria banned the hijab in [[Education in Austria#Grundschule|schools]] for children up to ten years of age. The ban was motivated by the equality between men and women and improving social integration with respect to local customs. Parents who send their child to school with a headscarf will be fined 440 euro.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tageblatt.lu/nachrichten/international/oesterreich-verbietet-kopftuecher-an-grundschulen/|title=Österreich verbietet Kopftücher an Grundschulen |last=Lëtzebuerg |first=Tageblatt |date=16 May 2019|website=Tageblatt.lu|language=DE|access-date=18 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518072650/http://www.tageblatt.lu/nachrichten/international/oesterreich-verbietet-kopftuecher-an-grundschulen/|archive-date=18 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The ban was overturned in 2020 by the [[Austrian Constitutional Court]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Austria court overturns primary school headscarf ban |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-55277840 |access-date=3 April 2022 |publisher=BBC News |date=11 December 2020}}</ref>

In 2019, [[Staffanstorp Municipality]] in Sweden banned all veils for school pupils up to sixth grade.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.svd.se/staffanstorp-rostade-for-huvudduksforbud|title=Staffanstorp röstade för huvudduksförbud|last=TT|date=29 May 2019|work=Svenska Dagbladet|access-date=31 May 2019|language=sv|issn=1101-2412|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531200217/https://www.svd.se/staffanstorp-rostade-for-huvudduksforbud|archive-date=31 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== India ====
{{See also|Karnataka hijab controversy}}
In India, Muslim women are allowed to wear the hijab and/or [[burqa]] anytime, anywhere.<ref name="thestar1">{{Cite news |last=Sheikh Saaliq |date=8 February 2022 |title=In India, wearing hijab bars some Muslim students from class |work=Toronto Star |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/asia/2022/02/08/in-india-wearing-hijab-bars-some-muslim-students-from-class.html }}</ref><ref name="BBC larger bench">{{Cite news |date=10 February 2022 |title=Karnataka hijab row: Judge refers issue to larger bench |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-60312864 }}</ref><ref name="csm">{{Cite news |date=8 February 2022 |title=Religious identity, rights in focus as Indian schools ban hijab |work=Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2022/0208/Religious-identity-rights-in-focus-as-Indian-schools-ban-hijab }}</ref> However, in January 2022, a number of colleges in the South Indian state of [[Karnataka]] stopped female students wearing the hijab from entering the campus, following which the state government issued a circular banning 'religious clothes' in educational institutions where [[school uniform|uniforms]] are prescribed.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/karnatakas-hijab-row-fragile-regimes-latest-assault-right-choice-160646|title=Karnataka's hijab row: A fragile regime's latest assault on right to choice|website=The News Minute}}</ref> On 15 March 2022, the Karnataka High Court, in a verdict, upheld the hijab ban in educational institutions where uniforms are prescribed, arguing that the practice is non-essential in Islam.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-60300009|title=Hijab ban: Karnataka high court upholds government order on headscarves|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> The hijab ban was condemned inside India and abroad by officials in countries including the [[United States]], [[Bahrain]] and [[Pakistan]], as well as by [[Human Rights Watch]], and by figures like [[Malala Yousafzai]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ganguly |first1=Meenakshi |title=India's Hijab Debate Fueled by Divisive Communal Politics |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/02/15/indias-hijab-debate-fueled-divisive-communal-politics |access-date=2022-08-25 |work=Human Rights Watch |date=2022-02-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author1=((Special Correspondent)) |title=Nobel laureate Malala Yousafzai comments on hijab controversy in Karnataka |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/nobel-laureate-malala-yousafzai-comments-on-hijab-controversy-in-karnataka/article38400512.ece |access-date=2022-08-25 |work=The Hindu |date=2022-02-09}}</ref>

A study published by human rights body [[People's Union for Civil Liberties]] reported that the move to ban hijab has widened the social divide and increased fear among Muslims in Karnataka.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Taniya |title='Very Frightening' to Enter Campus Alone: Muslim Students Recount Hijab Ban's Impact |url=https://thewire.in/rights/very-frightening-to-enter-campus-alone-muslim-students-recount-hijab-bans-impact |access-date=2022-09-15 |work=[[The Wire (India)|The Wire]] |date=2022-09-12}}</ref>

==== China ====
In Xinjiang province, the [[Government of China|Chinese government]] has banned women from wearing veils as part of a major crackdown on what it sees as religious extremism from Muslim [[Uighurs]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-bans-veils-abnormal-beards-western-province-xinjiang-n741501 | title=China bans veils and beards in the western province of Xinjiang | website=[[NBC News]] | date=April 2017 }}</ref>

===Unofficial pressure to wear hijab===

In [[Srinagar]], the capital of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, a previously unknown militant group calling itself [[Lashkar-e-Jabbar]] claimed responsibility for a series of acid attacks on women who did not wear the [[burqa]] in 2001, threatening to punish women who do not adhere to their vision of Islamic dress. Women of Kashmir, most of whom are not fully veiled, defied the warning, and the attacks were condemned by prominent militant and separatist groups of the region.<ref>{{cite news | last = Popham | first = Peter (in Delhi) | url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/kashmir-women-face-threat-of-acid-attacks-from-militants-9153249.html | title = Kashmir women face threat of acid attacks from militants | newspaper = The Independent | date = 30 August 2001 | access-date = 20 April 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160828023043/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/kashmir-women-face-threat-of-acid-attacks-from-militants-9153249.html | archive-date = 28 August 2016 | url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1484145.stm |title=Kashmir women face acid attacks |publisher=BBC News |date=10 August 2001 |access-date=20 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131201121/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1484145.stm |archive-date=31 January 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Some [[women in Jordan]] have reported unofficial pressure to wear a hijab in 2018.<ref name="a604">{{cite journal | last1=Bergenfeld | first1=Irina | last2=Clark | first2=Cari Jo | last3=Sandhu | first3=Seema | last4=Yount | first4=Kathryn M. | last5=Essaid | first5=Aida A. | last6=Sajdi | first6=Jude | last7=Abu Taleb | first7=Rand | last8=Robbin | first8=Zoe | last9=Batayeh | first9=Brian | last10=Zwooqar | first10=Ahad | last11=Spencer | first11=Rachael A. | title="There Is Always an Excuse to Blame the Girl": Perspectives on Sexual Harassment at a Jordanian University | journal=Violence Against Women | volume=28 | issue=14 | date=2022 | issn=1077-8012 | doi=10.1177/10778012221079373 | pages=3457–3481| pmid=35200046 }}</ref>

===Unofficial pressure against wearing the hijab===
In recent years, women wearing the hijab have been subjected to verbal and physical attacks worldwide, particularly following terrorist attacks.<ref>{{cite book|author=Basia Spalek|title=Muslim women's safety talk and their experience of victimisation|volume=Islam, Crime and Criminal Justice|editor=Basia Spalek|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dEa4AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64|pages=63–64|isbn=9781134032839}}</ref><ref name="Cainkar">{{cite book|author=Louis A. Cainkar|title=Homeland Insecurity: The Arab American and Muslim American Experience After 9/11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P75WAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA244|publisher=Russell Sage Foundation|year=2009|pages=244–245|isbn=9781610447683}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title='I'm Frightened': After Attacks in Paris, New York Muslims Cope With a Backlash|author=Kirk Semple|newspaper=New York Times|date=25 November 2015|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/26/nyregion/im-frightened-after-paris-terrorist-attacks-new-york-city-muslims-cope-with-a-backlash.html|access-date=27 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205233303/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/26/nyregion/im-frightened-after-paris-terrorist-attacks-new-york-city-muslims-cope-with-a-backlash.html|archive-date=5 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Louis A. Cainkar writes that the data suggest that women in hijab rather than men are the predominant target of anti-Muslim attacks, not because they are more easily identifiable as Muslims, but because they are seen to represent a threat to the local moral order that the attackers are seeking to defend.<ref name=Cainkar/> Some women stop wearing the hijab out of fear or following perceived pressure from their acquaintances, but many refuse to stop wearing it out of religious conviction, even when they are urged to do so for self-protection.<ref name=Cainkar/>

[[Kazakhstan]] has no official ban on wearing the hijab, but those who wear it have reported that authorities use a number of tactics to discriminate against them.<ref>{{cite news|author=Farangis Najibullah|title=Hijab Now A Hot Topic In Kazakhstan|publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=20 March 2011|url=http://www.rferl.org/content/islamic_hejab_head_scarf_hot_topic_kazakhstan/2344233.html|access-date=22 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920123142/http://www.rferl.org/content/islamic_hejab_head_scarf_hot_topic_kazakhstan/2344233.html|archive-date=20 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2015, authorities in [[Uzbekistan]] organized a "deveiling" campaign in the capital city [[Tashkent]], during which women wearing the hijab were detained and taken to a police station. Those who agreed to remove their hijab were released "after a conversation", while those who refused were transferred to the counterterrorism department and given a lecture. Their husbands or fathers were then summoned to convince the women to obey the police. This followed an earlier campaign in the [[Fergana Valley]].<ref>{{cite news|author=Bruce Pannier, Farruh Yusupov|title='Deveiling' Drive Moves To Uzbekistan's Capital|publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=14 June 2015|url=http://www.rferl.org/content/uzbekistan-deveiling-drive-hijab/27070345.html|access-date=22 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920123512/http://www.rferl.org/content/uzbekistan-deveiling-drive-hijab/27070345.html|archive-date=20 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the election of [[Shavkat Mirziyoyev]] as President of Uzbekistan in December 2016, Muslims were given the opportunity to openly express their religious identity, which manifested itself in the wider spread of hijabs in Uzbekistan. In July 2021, the state allowed the wearing of the hijab in public places.<ref>Malikov A. and Djuraeva D. 2021. Women, Islam, and politics in Samarkand (1991–2021), International Journal of Modern Anthropology. 2 (16): 563. DOI: 10.4314/ijma.v2i16.2</ref>

In [[Kyrgyzstan]] in 2016, the government sponsored street banners aiming to dissuade women from wearing the hijab.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=BBC News|title=Kyrgyzstan president: 'Women in mini skirts don't become suicide bombers'|date=13 August 2016|author=BBC Trending|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-36846249|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025174249/http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-36846249|archive-date=25 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Workplace discrimination against hijab-wearing women===
{{see also|Hijabophobia}}
[[File:No Muslim Ban Protests - DC (32446014332).jpg|thumb|300x300px|Protesters in Washington D.C. hold a sign depicting a woman wrapped in a U.S. flag hijab following Trump's signing of [[Executive Order 13769]] in 2017.]]
Discrimination against Muslims often affects women more due to the hijab making them more visible, leading to [[Employment discrimination|workplace prejudice]], particularly after the rise of [[Islamophobia]] post-9/11.<ref name="Tahmincioglu"/> Hijab-wearing Muslim women face both overt and covert discrimination in job applications and workplace environments, with covert bias often resulting in more hostile treatment.<ref name="Ahmad, A. S. 2010"/> Perceived discrimination can harm well-being,<ref name="Pascoe, E. A. 2009"/> but may also be overcome by religious pride and community; studies show hijab-wearing women often find greater strength and [[Belongingness|belonging]] despite challenges.<ref name="Persevere" />

The issue of discrimination against Muslims affects Muslim women more due to the hijab making them more identifiable compared to Muslim men. Particularly after the [[September 11 attacks]] and the coining of the term [[Islamophobia]], some of Islamophobia's manifestations are seen within the workplace.<ref name="Tahmincioglu"/> Women wearing the hijab are at risk of discrimination in their workplace because the hijab helps identify them for anyone who may hold Islamophobic attitudes.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1037/0735-7028.35.6.635|title = Islam 101: Understanding the Religion and Therapy Implications| journal=Professional Psychology: Research and Practice| volume=35| issue=6| pages=635–642|year = 2004|last1 = Ali|first1 = Saba Rasheed| last2=Liu| first2=William Ming| last3=Humedian| first3=Majeda| citeseerx=10.1.1.569.7436}}</ref><ref>Council on American-Islamic Relations. (2008). ''[http://cairunmasked.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/2008-Civil-Rights-Report.pdf The status of Muslim civil rights in the United States] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101211061813/http://cairunmasked.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/2008-Civil-Rights-Report.pdf |date=11 December 2010}}.'' [DX Reader version].</ref> Their association with the Islamic faith automatically projects any negative stereotyping of the religion onto them.<ref>Ghumman, S., & Jackson, L. (2010). The downside of religious attire: the Muslim headscarf and expectations of obtaining employment. ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', ''31''(1), 4-23</ref> As a result of the heightened discrimination, some hijab-wearing Muslim women in the workplace resort to taking off their hijab in hopes to prevent any further prejudice acts.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1353/csd.2003.0002 |title=Perspectives and Experiences of Muslim Women Who Veil on College Campuses |journal=Journal of College Student Development |volume=44 |pages=47–66 |year=2003 |last1=Cole |first1=Darnell |last2=Ahmadi |first2=Shafiqa |s2cid=145659665}}</ref>

A number of hijab-wearing women who were interviewed expressed that perceived discrimination also poses a problem for them.<ref name="Implications">Reeves, T., Mckinney, A., & Azam, L. (2012). Muslim women's workplace experiences: Implications for strategic diversity initiatives. ''Equality, Diversity and Inclusion'', ''32''(1), 49-67.</ref> To be specific, Muslim women shared that they chose not to wear the headscarf out of fear of future discrimination.<ref name="Implications" />

The discrimination hijab-wearing Muslim women face goes beyond affecting their work experience; it also interferes with their decision to uphold religious obligations. As a result, hijab-wearing Muslim women in the United States have worries regarding their ability to follow their religion, because it might mean they are rejected employment.<ref>Hamdani, D. (March 2005). Triple jeopardy: Muslim women's experience of discrimination. [http://archive.ccmw.com/publications/triple_jeopardy.pdf ''Canadian Council of Muslim Women''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816230634/http://archive.ccmw.com/publications/triple_jeopardy.pdf |date=16 August 2018}}</ref>

A study by Ali et al. (2015)<ref name="job sat">Ali, S., Yamada, T., & Mahmood, A. (2015). Relationships of the practice of Hijab, workplace discrimination, social class, job stress, and job satisfaction among Muslim American women. ''[[Journal of Employment Counseling]]'', ''52''(4), 146-157</ref> found a relationship between the discrimination Muslims face at work and their job satisfaction. In other words, the discrimination hijab-wearing Muslim women face at work is associated with their overall feeling of contentment of their jobs, especially compared to other religious groups.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Younis|first=Mohamed
|publisher=Gallup
|date=2009-03-02|title=Muslim Americans Exemplify Diversity, Potential|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/116260/Muslim-Americans-Exemplify-Diversity-Potential.aspx|access-date=2023-01-02
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111221083615/http://www.gallup.com/poll/116260/muslim-americans-exemplify-diversity-potential.aspx |archive-date=21 December 2011
}}</ref>

Hijab-wearing Muslim women not only experience discrimination whilst in their job environment; they also experience discrimination in their attempts to get a job. An experimental study conducted on potential hiring discrimination among Muslims found that in terms of overt discrimination there were no differences between Muslim women who wore traditional Islamic clothing and those who did not. However, covert discrimination was noted towards Muslim who wore the hijab, and as a result were dealt with in a hostile and rude manner.<ref name="Ahmad, A. S. 2010"/> While observing hiring practices among 4,000 employers in the U.S., experimenters found that employers who self-identified as [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] tended to avoid making interviews with candidates who appeared Muslim on their social network pages.<ref>{{cite journal |publisher=Social Sciences Research Network |last1=Acquisti |first1=Alessandro |last2=Fong |first2=Christina M. |date=17 July 2015 |title=An Experiment in Hiring Discrimination Via Online Social Networks |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2031979 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2031979 |location=Rochester, NY |ssrn=2031979 |s2cid=142425660 |journal=Management Science |access-date=4 October 2024}}</ref>

One instance that some view as hijab discrimination in the workplace that gained public attention and made it to the Supreme Court was ''[[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Abercrombie & Fitch Stores|EEOC v. Abercrombie & Fitch]]''. The [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission|U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] took advantage of its power granted by Title VII and made a case for a young hijabi female who applied for a job, but was rejected due to her wearing a headscarf which violated Abercrombie & Fitch's pre-existing and longstanding policy against head coverings and all black garments.<ref>Harrison, A. K. (2016). Hiding under the veil of "dress policy": Muslim women, hijab, and employment discrimination in the United States. ''Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law'', ''17''(3), 831</ref>

Discrimination levels differ depending on geographical location; for example, South Asian Muslims in the United Arab Emirates do not perceive as much discrimination as their South Asian counterparts in the U.S.<ref name="JIWS70-97">Pasha-Zaidi, N. (2015). Judging by appearances: Perceived discrimination among South Asian Muslim women in the US and the UAE. ''Journal of International Women's Studies,16''(2), 70-97</ref> Although, South Asian Muslim women in both locations are similar in describing discrimination experiences as subtle and indirect interactions.<ref name="JIWS70-97" /> The same study also reports differences among South Asian Muslim women who wear the hijab, and those who do not. For non-hijabis, they reported to have experienced more perceived discrimination when they were around other Muslims.<ref name="JIWS70-97" />

Perceived discrimination is detrimental to well-being, both mentally and physically.<ref name="Pascoe, E. A. 2009"/> However, perceived discrimination may also be related to more positive well-being for the individual.<ref name="Persevere">{{cite thesis |last=Jasperse |first=Marieke Lyniska |year=2009 |title=Persevere in Adversity: Perceived Religious Discrimination and Islamic Identity as Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing in Muslim Women in New Zealand |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/41336356.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Core.ac.uk |location=New Zealand |publisher=Victoria University of Wellington |doi=10.26686/wgtn.16967146.v1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924214843/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/41336356.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2017 |access-date=28 September 2018 |hdl=10063/1005|type=thesis}}</ref> A study in New Zealand concluded that while Muslim women who wore the headscarf did in fact experience discrimination, these negative experiences were overcome by much higher feelings of religious pride, belonging, and centrality.<ref name="Persevere" />