Editing Hannibal (section)

==Legacy==
[[File:Benjamin West (1738-1820) - The Oath of Hannibal - RCIN 405417 - Royal Collection.jpg|thumb|''[[The Oath of Hannibal]]'' by [[Benjamin West]], 1770]]
===Ancient world===
Hannibal caused great distress to many in Roman society. He became such a figure of terror that, whenever disaster threatened, Romans would exclaim "''[[List of Latin phrases: H#Hannibal ad portas|Hannibal ad portas]]''" ("Hannibal is at the gates!") to emphasize the gravity of the emergency, a phrase still used in modern languages.<ref>
Alan Emrich, [http://www.alanemrich.com/Class/Class_Practical_Latin.htm Practical Latin] {{webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025715/http://www.alanemrich.com/Class/Class_Practical_Latin.htm |date= 4 March 2016 }}</ref>

His legacy would be recorded by his Greek tutor, [[Sosylus of Lacedaemon]].<ref name=":0" /> The works of Roman writers such as [[Livy]] (64 or 59 BC – AD 12 or 17), [[Frontinus]] ({{circa}} AD 40–103), and [[Juvenal]] (1st–2nd century AD) show a grudging admiration for Hannibal. The Romans even built statues of the Carthaginian in the streets of Rome to advertise their defeat of such a worthy adversary.<ref>Holland, ''Rome and her Enemies'' 8</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cornelius Nepos |title=Selected Lives |date=1895 |publisher=Ginn & Company |page=181 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3dkAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA181 |access-date=20 October 2022}}</ref> It is plausible to suggest that Hannibal engendered the greatest fear Rome had towards an enemy. Nevertheless, the Romans grimly refused to admit the possibility of defeat and rejected all overtures for peace; they even refused to accept the ransom of prisoners after Cannae.<ref>Livy, ''The War With Hannibal'' 22.61</ref>

During the war there are no reports of revolutions among the Roman citizens, no factions within the Senate desiring peace, no pro-Carthaginian Roman turncoats, and no coups.<ref>Lazenby, ''Hannibal's War'' 237–238
</ref><ref>
Goldsworthy, The Fall of Carthage 315</ref> Indeed, throughout the war Roman aristocrats ferociously competed with each other for positions of command to fight against Rome's most dangerous enemy. Hannibal's military genius was not enough to really disturb the Roman political process and the collective political and military capacity of the Roman people. As Lazenby states,

<blockquote>
It says volumes, too, for their political maturity and respect for constitutional forms that the complicated machinery of government continued to function even amidst disaster—there are few states in the ancient world in which a general who had lost a battle like Cannae would have dared to remain, let alone would have continued to be treated respectfully as head of state.<ref>
J. F. Lazenby, ''The Hannibalic War'', 254</ref>
</blockquote>

According to the historian Livy, the Romans feared Hannibal's military genius, and during Hannibal's march against Rome in 211&nbsp;BC<blockquote>
a messenger who had travelled from Fregellae for a day and a night without stopping created great alarm in Rome, and the excitement was increased by people running about the City with wildly exaggerated accounts of the news he had brought. The wailing cry of the [[Women in ancient Rome|matrons]] was heard everywhere, not only in private houses but even in the temples. Here they knelt and swept the temple-floors with their dishevelled hair and lifted up their hands to heaven in piteous entreaty to the gods that they would deliver the City of Rome out of the hands of the enemy and preserve its mothers and children from injury and outrage.<ref name="livy26_8"/></blockquote> In the Senate the news was "received with varying feelings as men's temperaments differed,"<ref name="livy26_8"/> so it was decided to keep Capua under siege, but to send 15,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry as reinforcements to Rome.<ref name="livy26_8">{{cite web |url= http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy26.html |title= Livy's History of Rome |publisher= Mcadams.posc.mu.edu |access-date= 6 June 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160529171914/http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy26.html |archive-date= 29 May 2016 |url-status= dead }}</ref>

According to Livy, the land occupied by Hannibal's army outside Rome in 211&nbsp;BC was sold by a Roman while it was occupied.<ref>Livy, The War with Hannibal, 26.11</ref> This may not be true, but as Lazenby states, "could well be, exemplifying as it does not only the supreme confidence felt by the Romans in ultimate victory, but also the way in which something like normal life continued."<ref>J.F. Lazenby, ''The Hannibalic War'', p. 254</ref> After [[Cannae]], the Romans showed considerable steadfastness. As an example of Rome's confidence, after the Cannae disaster she was left virtually defenseless; however, the Senate still chose not to withdraw a single garrison from an overseas province to strengthen the city. In fact, they were reinforced and the campaigns there maintained until victory was secured; beginning first in Sicily under the direction of [[Claudius Marcellus]], and later in [[Hispania]] under [[Scipio Africanus]].<ref>Bagnall, The Punic Wars 203
</ref><ref>Lazenby, Hannibal's War 235</ref> Although the long-term consequences of Hannibal's war are debatable, this war was undeniably Rome's "finest hour".<ref>Lazenby Hannibal's War 254
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Goldsworthy
| first1 = Adrian
| author-link1 = Adrian Goldsworthy
| title = The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146BC
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jM1sFXcAPvAC
| publisher = Hachette UK
| publication-date = 2012
| pages = 366–367
| isbn = 978-1780223063
| access-date = 15 May 2018
| date =  2012
}}
</ref>

Most of the sources available to historians about Hannibal are from Romans. They considered him the greatest enemy Rome had ever faced. [[Livy]] gives us the idea that Hannibal was extremely cruel. Even [[Cicero]], when he talked of Rome and its two great enemies, spoke of the "honourable" [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]] and the "cruel" Hannibal. Yet a different picture sometimes emerges. When Hannibal's successes had brought about the death of two [[Roman consul]]s, he vainly searched for the body of [[Gaius Flaminius (consul 223 BC)|Gaius Flaminius]] on the shores of [[Lake Trasimeno|Lake Trasimene]], held ceremonial rituals in recognition of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus (General)|Lucius Aemilius Paullus]], and sent [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]]' ashes back to his family in Rome. Any bias attributed to Polybius, however, is more troublesome. [[Ronald J. Mellor|Ronald Mellor]] considered the Greek scholar a loyal partisan of [[Scipio Aemilianus]],<ref>[[Ronald J. Mellor|Mellor, Ronald J.]] ''The Historians of Ancient Rome''</ref> while H. Ormerod does not view him as an "altogether unprejudiced witness" when it came to his pet peeves, the Aetolians, the Carthaginians, and the Cretans.<ref>Omerod, H. ''Piracy in the Ancient World'', p. 141</ref> Nonetheless, Polybius did recognize that the reputation for cruelty the Romans attached to Hannibal might in reality have been due to mistaking him for one of his officers, Hannibal Monomachus.<ref>[[Gavin de Beer|De Beer, Sir Gavin]] (1969). ''Hannibal: Challenging Rome's Supremacy'' p. 111.</ref>

In the [[Severan dynasty|Severan period]], Hannibal was portrayed as a successful military leader from history who could serve as an exemplary figure for a Roman audience.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Lentzsch |first=Simon |title=The Eastern Roman Empire under the Severans: Old Connections, new Beginnings? |publisher=[[Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht]] |year=2024 |isbn=978-3-647-30251-5 |editor-last=Hoffmann-Salz |editor-first=Julia |pages=226–227, 234–236 |chapter=In the footsteps of the past – the Severans and the Tomb of Hannibal |editor-last2=Heil |editor-first2=Matthäus |editor-last3=Wienholz |editor-first3=Holger}}</ref> In the 13th century, Byzantine scholar [[John Tzetzes]] wrote that "Severus (likely [[Septimius Severus]]), being of Libyan birth", constructed a "tomb of white marble" for Hannibal in Libyssa. Scholars debate whether this act was intended to promote a unified North African identity, stimulate local economic interests, or link Severus with past military heroes to strengthen his legacy, reflecting a broader Severan policy of honoring local traditions and historical figures.<ref name=":2" />

===Military history===
[[File:Joseph Mallord William Turner 081.jpg|thumb|right|The material of legend: in ''[[Snow Storm: Hannibal and his Army Crossing the Alps]]'' (1812)  [[J. M. W. Turner]] envelops Hannibal's crossing of the Alps in [[Romanticism|Romantic]] atmosphere.]]

Hannibal is generally regarded as one of the best military strategists and tacticians of all time, the double envelopment at Cannae an enduring legacy of tactical brilliance. According to [[Appian]], several years after the Second Punic War, Hannibal served as a political advisor in the Seleucid Kingdom and [[Scipio Africanus|Scipio]] arrived there on a diplomatic mission from Rome.
{{blockquote|It is said that at one of their meetings in the gymnasium Scipio and Hannibal had a conversation on the subject of generalship, in the presence of a number of bystanders, and that Scipio asked Hannibal whom he considered the greatest general, to which the latter replied "[[Alexander the Great|Alexander of Macedonia]]".

To this Scipio assented since he also yielded the first place to Alexander. Then he asked Hannibal whom he placed next, and he replied "[[Pyrrhus of Epirus]]", because he considered boldness the first qualification of a general; "for it would not be possible", he said, "to find two kings more enterprising than these".

Scipio was rather nettled by this, but nevertheless he asked Hannibal to whom he would give the third place, expecting that at least the third would be assigned to him; but Hannibal replied, "to myself; for when I was a young man I conquered Hispania and crossed the Alps with an army, the first after [[Hercules]]."

As Scipio saw that he was likely to prolong his self-laudation he said, laughing, "where would you place yourself, Hannibal, if you had not been defeated by me?" Hannibal, now perceiving his jealousy, replied, "in that case I should have put myself before Alexander". Thus Hannibal continued his self-laudation, but flattered Scipio in an indirect manner by suggesting that he had conquered one who was the superior of Alexander.

At the end of this conversation Hannibal invited Scipio to be his guest, and Scipio replied that he would be so gladly if Hannibal were not living with [[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus]], who was held in suspicion by the Romans. Thus did they, in a manner worthy of great commanders, cast aside their enmity at the end of their wars.<ref name="appian">Appian, ''History of the Syrian Wars'', §10 and §11 at [https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_syriaca_02.html Livius.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227081451/http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_syriaca_02.html |date=27 December 2015 }}</ref>}}

Military academies all over the world continue to study Hannibal's exploits, especially his victory at [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]].<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Messer |first1=Rick Jay |title=The influence of Hannibal of Carthage on the art of war and how his legacy has been interpreted |date=2009 |hdl=2097/1503 |hdl-access=free |citeseerx=10.1.1.582.1385 }}</ref>

[[File:Hannibal in Italy by Jacopo Ripanda - Sala di Annibale - Palazzo dei Conservatori - Musei Capitolini - Rome 2016 (2).jpg|thumb|right| Hannibal's celebrated feat in crossing the Alps with [[war elephant]]s passed into European legend: detail of a fresco by [[Jacopo Ripanda]], {{circa | 1510}}, [[Capitoline Museums]], Rome.]]

Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, in his article in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]] (1910–1911), praises Hannibal in these words:
{{quotation|As to the transcendent military genius of Hannibal there cannot be two opinions. The man who for fifteen years could hold his ground in a hostile country against several powerful armies and a succession of able generals must have been a commander and a tactician of supreme capacity. In the use of strategies and ambuscades he certainly surpassed all other generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his achievements were, we must marvel the more when we take into account the grudging support he received from Carthage. As his veterans melted away, he had to organize fresh levies on the spot. We never hear of a mutiny in his army, composed though it was of North Africans, Iberians and [[Gauls]]. Again, all we know of him comes for the most part from hostile sources. The Romans feared and hated him so much that they could not do him justice. Livy speaks of his great qualities, but he adds that his vices were equally great, among which he singles out his more than [[wikt:fides Punica|Punic perfidy]] and an inhuman cruelty. For the first there would seem to be no further justification than that he was consummately skillful in the use of ambuscades. For the latter there is, we believe, no more ground than that at certain crises he acted in the general spirit of ancient warfare. Sometimes he contrasts most favorably with his enemy. No such brutality stains his name as that perpetrated by [[Gaius Claudius Nero]] on the vanquished [[Hasdrubal Barca|Hasdrubal]]. Polybius merely says that he was accused of cruelty by the Romans and of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had indeed bitter enemies, and his life was one continuous struggle against destiny. For steadfastness of purpose, for organizing capacity and a mastery of military science he has perhaps never had an equal.<ref name="1911britannica">{{Cite EB1911 |last= Caspari |first= M.O.B. |wstitle= Hannibal (general)}}</ref>}}

Even the Roman chroniclers acknowledged Hannibal's supreme military leadership, writing that "he never required others to do what he could not and would not do himself".<ref>[http://www.carpenoctem.tv/military/hannibal.html Hannibal] {{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111017053457/http://www.carpenoctem.tv/military/hannibal.html |date= 17 October 2011 }} at ''CarpeNoctem.tv''</ref> According to Polybius 23, 13, p.&nbsp;423:
{{blockquote |It is a remarkable and very cogent proof of Hannibal's having been by nature a real leader and far superior to anyone else in statesmanship, that though he spent seventeen years in the field, passed through so many barbarous countries, and employed to aid him in desperate and extraordinary enterprises numbers of men of different nations and languages, no one ever dreamt of conspiring against him, nor was he ever deserted by those who had once joined him or submitted to him.}}
[[File:Museum of Antiquities Hannibal.JPG| thumb |upright|A bust of Hannibal, 17th century, [[Museum of Antiquities (Saskatoon)]]]]

Count [[Alfred von Schlieffen]] developed his "[[Schlieffen Plan]]" (1905/1906) from his military studies, including the envelopment technique that Hannibal employed in the [[Battle of Cannae]].<ref>{{cite book|last= Daly|first= Gregory|author-link= Gregory Daly|title= Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qayiX4SFonkC&pg=PR10|year= 2003|publisher= Psychology Press|isbn= 978-0-415-32743-5|page=x}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cottrell |first=Leonard |author-link=Leonard Cottrell |url= |title=Hannibal: Enemy of Rome |publisher=Perseus Books Group |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-306-80498-4 |page=134}}</ref> [[George S. Patton]] believed himself a reincarnation of Hannibal—as well as of many other people, including a Roman [[legionary]] and a Napoleonic soldier.<ref>"Any man who thinks he is the reincarnation of Hannibal or some such isn't quite possessed of all his buttons", quoted by {{cite book|last= D'Este|first= Carlo|author-link= Carlo D'Este|title= Patton: A Genius for War |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=cz-hBWYOTnEC&pg=RA7-PA815|year= 1996|publisher= HarperCollins|isbn= 978-0-06-092762-2}}, p. 815</ref><ref>Hirshson, Stanley, ''General Patton: A Soldier's Life'', p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=xOLMGBKbjGUC&dq=Patton,+reincarnated&pg=RA1-PA163 163]</ref> [[Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.]], the commander of the [[Coalition of the Gulf War]] of 1990–1991, claimed, "The technology of war may change, the sophistication of weapons certainly changes. But those same principles of war that applied to the days of Hannibal apply today."<ref>Carlton, James, ''The Military Quotation Book'', New York, Thomas Dunne Books, 2002. {{ISBN?}}{{Page?|date=May 2023}}</ref>

According to the military historian [[Theodore Ayrault Dodge]],
{{blockquote|Hannibal excelled as a tactician. No battle in history is a finer sample of tactics than Cannae. But he was yet greater in logistics and strategy. No captain ever marched to and fro among so many armies of troops superior to his own numbers and material as fearlessly and skilfully as he. No man ever held his own so long or so ably against such odds. Constantly overmatched by better soldiers, led by generals always respectable, often of great ability, he yet defied all their efforts to drive him from Italy, for half a generation. Excepting in the case of Alexander, and some few isolated instances, all wars up to the Second Punic War, had been decided largely, if not entirely, by battle-tactics. Strategic ability had been comprehended only on a minor scale. Armies had marched towards each other, had fought in parallel order, and the conqueror had imposed terms on his opponent. Any variation from this rule consisted in ambuscades or other stratagems. That war could be waged by avoiding in lieu of seeking battle; that the results of a victory could be earned by attacks upon the enemy's communications, by flank-manoeuvres, by seizing positions from which safely to threaten him in case he moved, and by other devices of strategy, was not understood... [However,] for the first time in the history of war, we see two contending generals avoiding each other, occupying impregnable camps on heights, marching about each other's flanks to seize cities or supplies in their rear, harassing each other with [[guerrilla|small-war]], and rarely venturing on a battle which might prove a fatal disaster—all with a well-conceived purpose of placing his opponent at a strategic disadvantage... That it did so was due to the teaching of Hannibal.<ref name="dodge" />}}

===In modern Tunisia===
Due to his origin and connection with the territory belonging to modern-day Tunisia, he is widely revered as a national hero in the Arab nation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://carthagemagazine.com/hannibal-barca/ |title=Hannibal: The Last Hero of The Free World of Antiquity |work=Carthage Magazine |date=25 August 2020 |access-date=21 January 2022 }}</ref>

Hannibal's profile appears on the [[Tunisian dinar|Tunisian five-dinar bill]] issued on 8 November 1993, as well as on another new bill put into circulation on 20 March 2013. His name also appears in that of a private television channel, [[Hannibal TV]]. A street in [[Carthage (municipality)|Carthage]], located near the Punic ports, bears his name; as does as a station on the [[Tunis-Goulette-Marsa|TGM]] railway line: "Carthage Hannibal".

Plans envisage a mausoleum and a {{convert|17|m|adj=on}} high [[colossus (disambiguation)|colossus]] of Hannibal on the [[Byrsa]], the highest point of Carthage overlooking [[Tunis]].<ref>
{{Cite web|url= https://www.espacemanager.com/le-prototype-dune-statue-de-hannibal-presente-au-president-de-la-republique.html |title=Le prototype d'une statue de Hannibal présenté au président de la République|website=Espace Manager |access-date=5 October 2020}}
</ref>

===Other===
[[File:HANİBALIN MEZARI-GEBZE (2).jpg|thumb|Hannibal's monumental tomb in [[Kocaeli Province|Kocaeli]], Turkey]]

The teenaged [[Sigmund Freud]] regarded Hannibal as a "hero"; the founder of [[psychoanalysis]] portrays an idealized image of the Carthaginian general in his analysis of his "dreams of Rome" in ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]''. Freud then associates this phenomenon with the adage "All roads lead to Rome". He writes in ''The Interpretation of Dreams'': "Hannibal and Rome symbolized for the adolescent that I was the opposition between the tenacity of Judaism and the organizing spirit of the Catholic Church".<ref>Sigmund Freud, ''L'interprétation du rêve'' (''Die Traumdeutung'', 1900), ''Œuvres complètes de Freud / Psychanalyse'' (OCF.P) IV, Paris: PUF/Quadrige, 2010, {{p.|234}}.</ref>

[[Kocaeli Province|Kocaeli]] in Turkey has a [[cenotaph]] built in Hannibal's memory. Even though the location of Hannibal's tomb could not be determined precisely in the studies carried out due to [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk's]] great interest, a monumental cenotaph was built in 1981 in the south of present-day [[Gebze]] as an expression of Atatürk's will and Atatürk's respect for Hannibal.

[[David Anthony Durham]]'s novel ''[[Pride of Carthage]]'' is a fictionalized account of Hannibal's conquests. It was followed by The Risen – an account of [[Spartacus]]' slave revolution.

Since 2011, Hannibal has appeared as one of the main characters, with [[Scipio Africanus]], of the ''Ad Astra'' manga in which Mihachi Kagano traces the course of the [[Second Punic War]].<ref>[http://www.ki-oon.com/news/164-ad-astra-quand-l-histoire-s-ecrit-et-se-dessine.html ki-oon.com « ''Ad Astra'' : quand l'histoire s'écrit et se dessine ! », ''Ki-oon'', 9 septembre 2014].</ref> The two generals appear as allies in the ''[[Drifters (manga)|Drifters]]'' manga, having been teleported to another dimension to wage war together.

[[Tunisia national football team|Tunisia's]] home and away kit for the [[2022 FIFA World Cup]] was inspired by the [[Ksour Essef cuirass]], a piece of body armor believed to be worn by Carthaginian soldiers under the command of Hannibal.<ref>{{cite web|date=29 September 2022|title=Tunisia 2022 World Cup Home & Away Kits Released|url=https://www.footyheadlines.com/2022/09/tunisia-2022-world-cup-home-away-kits_01111228345.html|access-date=16 October 2022|publisher=Footy Headlines}}</ref>