Editing German Shepherd (section)

== Health ==
[[File:Pastor Alemán hembra, diez años de edad.jpg|thumb|Portrait of a ten year old German Shepherd]]
Many common ailments of the German Shepherd are a result of the inbreeding practised early in the breed's life.{{sfnp|Willis|1976|p=31}} One such common ailment is [[Hip dysplasia (canine)|hip]] and [[elbow dysplasia]] which may cause the dog to experience pain later on in life and may cause [[arthritis]].{{cn|date=June 2024}} A study conducted by the [[University of Zurich]] found that 45% of the police working dogs were affected by degenerative spinal stenosis, although a small sample size was used.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Steffen | first1 = F. | last2 = Hunold | first2 = K. | last3 = Scharf | first3 = G. | last4 = Roos | first4 = M. | last5 = Flückiger | first5 = M. | title = A follow-up study of neurologic and radiographic findings in working German Shepherd Dogs with and without degenerative lumbosacral stenosis | doi = 10.2460/javma.231.10.1529 | journal = Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association | volume = 231 | issue = 10 | pages = 1529–1533 | year = 2007 | pmid =  18020994}}</ref> The [[Orthopedic Foundation for Animals]] found that 19.1% of German Shepherds are affected by hip dysplasia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.offa.org/hipstatbreed.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610214651/http://www.offa.org/hipstatbreed.html |title=Hip Dysplasia Statistics |publisher=Orthopedic Foundation for Animals |archive-date=10 June 2009 |year=2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> 

Overall lifespan is approximately 10 years.{{r|dk|p=35}} Several studies have found the average lifespan to be lower than the average for all dogs: a 2024 UK study found a mean lifespan of 11.3 years, compared to 12 years for [[Mongrel|crossbreeds]] and 12.7 years for purebreds;<ref>{{cite journal | last1=McMillan | first1=Kirsten M. | last2=Bielby | first2=Jon | last3=Williams | first3=Carys L. | last4=Upjohn | first4=Melissa M. | last5=Casey | first5=Rachel A. | last6=Christley | first6=Robert M. | title=Longevity of companion dog breeds: those at risk from early death | journal=Scientific Reports | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=14 | issue=1 | date=2024-02-01 | issn=2045-2322 | doi=10.1038/s41598-023-50458-w | page=531| pmid=38302530 | pmc=10834484 | bibcode=2024NatSR..14..531M }}</ref> a 2022 UK study using veterinary records found a value of 10.16 years compared to 11.23 overall and 11.82 for crossbreeds;<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Teng | first1=Kendy Tzu-yun | last2=Brodbelt | first2=Dave C. | last3=Pegram | first3=Camilla | last4=Church | first4=David B. | last5=O’Neill | first5=Dan G. | title=Life tables of annual life expectancy and mortality for companion dogs in the United Kingdom | journal=Scientific Reports | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=12 | issue=1 | date=2022-04-28 | issn=2045-2322 | doi=10.1038/s41598-022-10341-6 | page=6415| pmid=35484374 | pmc=9050668 | bibcode=2022NatSR..12.6415T }}</ref> in Italy a 2024 study found an average of 10 years, the same as the overall average;<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Roccaro | first1=Mariana | last2=Salini | first2=Romolo | last3=Pietra | first3=Marco | last4=Sgorbini | first4=Micaela | last5=Gori | first5=Eleonora | last6=Dondi | first6=Maurizio | last7=Crisi | first7=Paolo E. | last8=Conte | first8=Annamaria | last9=Dalla Villa | first9=Paolo | last10=Podaliri | first10=Michele | last11=Ciaramella | first11=Paolo | last12=Di Palma | first12=Cristina | last13=Passantino | first13=Annamaria | last14=Porciello | first14=Francesco | last15=Gianella | first15=Paola | last16=Guglielmini | first16=Carlo | last17=Alborali | first17=Giovanni L. | last18=Rota Nodari | first18=Sara | last19=Sabatelli | first19=Sonia | last20=Peli | first20=Angelo | title=Factors related to longevity and mortality of dogs in Italy | journal=Preventive Veterinary Medicine | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=225 | year=2024 | issn=0167-5877 | doi=10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.106155 | page=106155| doi-access=free | pmid=38394961 | hdl=11585/961937 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> a 2005 study in Sweden based on insurance data found 51% of German Shepherd dogs died by the age of 10, higher than the overall rate of 35%.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Egenvall | first1=A | last2=Bonnett | first2=Bn | last3=Hedhammar | first3=å | last4=Olson | first4=P | title=Mortality in over 350,000 Insured Swedish Dogs from 1995–2000: II. Breed-Specific Age and Survival Patterns and Relative Risk for Causes of Death | journal=Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica | volume=46 | issue=3 | date=2005-09-30 | pages=121–136 | issn=1751-0147 | pmid=16261925 | pmc=1624818 | doi=10.1186/1751-0147-46-121 | doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2015 French study found a mean lifespan of 10.08 years.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.11.008| title = Inbreeding impact on litter size and survival in selected canine breeds| journal = The Veterinary Journal| volume = 203| issue = 1| pages = 74–78| year = 2015| last1 = Leroy | first1 = G. G. | last2 = Phocas | first2 = F. | last3 = Hedan | first3 = B. | last4 = Verrier | first4 = E. | last5 = Rognon | first5 = X. | pmid=25475165| s2cid = 27631883| url = https://hal-univ-rennes1.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01122782/file/Inbreeding%20impact%20on%20litter%20size_accepted.pdf}}</ref>

The German Shepherd Dog is one of the breeds more commonly affected by [[degenerative myelopathy]], which is caused by a mutation in the [[SOD1]] gene.<ref>{{cite book |author1-first=James A.C. |author1-last=Oliver |author2-first=Cathryn S. |author2-last=Mellersh | editor1-first=Barbara | editor1-last=Cooper | editor2-first=Elizabeth |editor2-last=Mullineaux |editor3-first=Lynn | editor3-last=Turner |title=BSAVA Textbook of Veterinary Nursing |date=2020 |publisher=British Small Animal Veterinary Association |isbn=978-1-910-44339-2 |edition=Sixth|chapter=Genetics| page=131}}</ref> A small study in the UK showed 16% of young asymptomatic German Shepherds to be homozygous for the mutation, with a further 38% being carriers.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1186/2052-6687-1-10| title = A retrospective study of the prevalence of the canine degenerative myelopathy associated superoxide dismutase 1 mutation (SOD1:c.118G > A) in a referral population of German Shepherd dogs from the UK| journal = Canine Genetics and Epidemiology| volume = 1| pages = 10| year = 2014| last1 = Holder | first1 = A. L. | last2 = Price | first2 = J. A. | last3 = Adams | first3 = J. P. | last4 = Volk | first4 = H. A. | last5 = Catchpole | first5 = B. | pmid = 26401327| pmc = 4579386| s2cid = 10326107| url = http://researchonline.rvc.ac.uk/9043/1/9043.pdf | doi-access = free}}</ref>

German Shepherds have a higher-than-normal incidence of [[Von Willebrand disease]], a common inherited bleeding disorder,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Paul Pion |first=D. V. M. |last2=Spadafori |first2=Gina |date=2017-08-08 |title=Veterinary Partner |url=https://veterinarypartner.vin.com/default.aspx?id=4952042&pid=19239&utm_source=chatgpt.com |journal=VIN.com}}</ref> and [[exocrine pancreatic insufficiency]] (EPI), a degenerative disease of the [[pancreas]]. It is estimated that 1% of the UK population of German Shepherds has this disease.<ref>{{cite web|website=Universities Federation for Animal Welfare |title=Genetic welfare problems of companion animals – Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency |url=http://www.ufaw.org.uk/EXOCRINEPANCREATICINSUFFICIENCYGSD.php |access-date=20 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324062841/http://www.ufaw.org.uk/EXOCRINEPANCREATICINSUFFICIENCYGSD.php |archive-date=24 March 2014 }}</ref>

=== Musculoskeletal ===

[[Musculoskeletal disorder]]s are debilitating conditions that are often associated with genetic makeup, malnutrition, and stress-related events.{{sfn|Ackerman|2008|pp=135-139}} Some breeds like the German Shepherd, are predisposed to a variety of different skeletal disorders, including but not limited to: canine hip dysplasia, [[Cauda equina syndrome]], and [[osteoarthritis]].<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | last1 = Fels | first1 = L. | last2 = Distl | first2 = O. | year = 2014 | title = Identification and validation of quantitative trait loci (QTL) for canine hip dysplasia (CHD) in German shepherd dogs | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0096618 | journal = PLOS ONE| volume = 9 | issue = 5| pages = 1–8 | pmid = 24802516 | pmc = 4011879 | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...996618F | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal | last1 = Ondreka | first1 = N. | last2 = Amort | first2 = K.H. | last3 = Stock | first3 = K.F. | last4 = Tellhelm | first4 = B. | last5 = Klumpp | first5 = S.W. | last6 = Kramer | first6 = M. | last7 = Schmidt | first7 = M.J. | year = 2013 | title = Skeletal morpohology and morphometry of the lumbosacral junction in German shepherd dogs and an evaluation of the possible genetic basis for radiographic findings | journal = The Veterinary Journal | volume = 196 | issue = 1| pages = 64–70 | doi = 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.07.015 | pmid = 22921082 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

[[Canine hip dysplasia]] (CHD) is the abnormal formation of the hip joint and surrounding tissue causing instability and partial dislocation of the hip joint, resulting in pain, [[inflammation]], lameness, and potentially osteoarthritis of the joint.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hand | first1 = M. | last2 = Thatcher | first2 = C. | last3 = Remillard | first3 = R. | last4 = Roudebush | first4 = P. | year = 2000 | title = Small animal clinical nutrition | journal = Mark Morris Institute | volume = 4 | pages = 542–543 }}</ref> A North American study analysing more than 1,000,000 hip and 250,000 elbow scans in dogs over the age of two found the German Shepherd Dog to have a rate of hip and elbow dysplasia to be 18.9% and 17.8% respectively. The German Shepherd had the 8th highest rate of hip dysplasia and 6th highest rate of elbow dysplasia.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Oberbauer | first1=A. M. | last2=Keller | first2=G. G. | last3=Famula | first3=T. R. | title=Long-term genetic selection reduced prevalence of hip and elbow dysplasia in 60 dog breeds | journal=PLOS ONE | publisher=Public Library of Science (PLoS) | volume=12 | issue=2 | date=2017-02-24 | issn=1932-6203 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0172918 | doi-access=free | page=e0172918| pmid=28234985 | pmc=5325577 | bibcode=2017PLoSO..1272918O }}</ref> Another North American study found 10.26% of German Shepherd Dogs surveyed at teaching hospitals to have hip dysplasia, compared to 3.52% overall.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Witsberger | first1=Tige H. | last2=Villamil | first2=J. Armando | last3=Schultz | first3=Loren G. | last4=Hahn | first4=Allen W. | last5=Cook | first5=James L. | title=Prevalence of and risk factors for hip dysplasia and cranial cruciate ligament deficiency in dogs | journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association | volume=232 | issue=12 | date=2008-06-15 | issn=0003-1488 | doi=10.2460/javma.232.12.1818 | pages=1818–1824| pmid=18598150 }}</ref>

===Pituitary dwarfism===
[[File:Karelian Bear Dogs with canine pituitary dwarfism B.webp|thumb|Two Karelian Bear Dogs at 10 months of age, left is an unaffected littermate and on the right is a bitch affected by pituitary dwarfism]]
[[File:Karelian Bear Dogs with canine pituitary dwarfism C.webp|thumb|An adult Karelian Bear Dog bitch with pituitary dwarfism displaying severe alopecia]]
[[Congenital hyposomatotropism]], also known as pituitary dwarfism has been known to be an [[autosomal recessive]] disorder in the German Shepherd dog for a long time. The condition causes growth retardation. The puppy coat is retained into adulthood and guard hairs fail to fully develop outside of the distal extremities. Eventually, full [[alopecia]] occurs. The degree of growth retardation and other clinical symptoms varies between affected dogs.<ref name="hyposomatotropism"/>

Investigations into the genealogy in 1978 found the mutation evolved in 1940 or earlier. Multiple [[Championship (dog)|champions]] have been shown to be carriers of the mutation, explaining the spread and prevalence of the disorder. This condition has been observed in breeds that were crossed with German Shepherd dogs such as the [[Karelian Bear dog]], [[Saarloos Wolfhound]], and the [[Czechoslovakian Wolfdog]]. Pituitary dwarfism in other dog breeds (excluding those with German Shepherd ancestry) is extremely rare.<ref name="hyposomatotropism">{{cite book | last1=Feldman | first1=Edward C. | last2=Nelson | first2=Richard W. | last3=Reusch | first3=Claudia | last4=Scott-Moncrieff | first4=J. Catharine | title=Canine and Feline Endocrinology | publisher=Saunders | publication-place=St. Louis, Missouri | date=2014-12-08 | isbn=978-1-4557-4456-5 | pages=44–49}}</ref>

Unlike humans where the [[POU1F1]] and [[PROP1]] genes are responsible for the defect a mutation in the [[LHX3]] gene is responsible for the condition.<ref name="hyposomatotropism"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Voorbij | first1=Annemarie M. W. Y. | last2=van Steenbeek | first2=Frank G. | last3=Vos-Loohuis | first3=Manon | last4=Martens | first4=Ellen E. C. P. | last5=Hanson-Nilsson | first5=Jeanette M. | last6=van Oost | first6=Bernard A. | last7=Kooistra | first7=Hans S. | last8=Leegwater | first8=Peter A. | title=A Contracted DNA Repeat in LHX3 Intron 5 Is Associated with Aberrant Splicing and Pituitary Dwarfism in German Shepherd Dogs | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2011-11-23 | issn=1932-6203 | pmid=22132174 | pmc=3223203 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0027940 | doi-access=free | page=e27940| bibcode=2011PLoSO...627940V }}</ref> The [[University of Utrecht]] offers a genetic test for this defect.<ref name="hyposomatotropism"/>

Untreated dogs usually live between 3-5 years. Dogs that undergo treatment can live healthily for several years but are still unlikely to have a normal life expectancy.<ref name="hyposomatotropism"/>