Editing Gender role (section)

===Sexual orientation===
{{Further|Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities|Societal attitudes towards homosexuality|Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures}}
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[[Sexual orientation]] is defined by the interplay between a person's emotional and physical attraction toward others.<ref>Issues in Society : Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity. (2014). Thirroul, AU: The Spinney Press.</ref> Generally, sexual orientation is broken into the three categories: heterosexual, homosexual and bisexual. By basic definition, the term heterosexual is typically used in reference to someone who is attracted to people of the opposite sex, the term homosexual is used to classify people who are attracted to those of the same sex, and the term bisexual is used to identify those who are attracted to both the same and opposite sexes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindley |first1=Lisa |last2=Walsemann |first2=Katrina |last3=Carter |first3=Jarvis |year=2012 |title=The Association of Sexual Orientation Measures With Young Adults' Health-Related Outcomes |journal=[[American Journal of Public Health]] |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1177–1178 |doi=10.2105/ajph.2011.300262 |pmid=22021310 |pmc=3483939}}</ref> Sexual orientation can be variously defined based on sexual identity, sexual behavior and sexual attraction. People can fall anywhere on a spectrum from strictly heterosexual to strictly homosexual.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Epstein |first1=Robert |last2=McKinney |first2=Paul |last3=Fox |first3=Shannon |last4=Garcia |first4=Carlos |year=2013 |title=Support for a Fluid-Continuum Model or Sexual Orientation: A Large-Scale Internet Study |journal=[[Journal of Homosexuality]] |volume=59 |issue=10 |pages=1356–1358 |doi=10.1080/00918369.2012.724634 |pmid=23153024 |s2cid=37966088}}</ref>

Scientists do not know the exact cause of sexual orientation, but they theorize that it is caused by a complex interplay of [[Genetics|genetic]], [[hormonal]], and [[Environment and sexual orientation|environmental influences]],<ref name="pediatrics2004"/><ref name="Lamanna">{{cite book |last1=Lamanna |first1=Mary Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fofaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 |title=Marriages, Families, and Relationships: Making Choices in a Diverse Society |last2=Riedmann |first2=Agnes |last3=Stewart |first3=Susan D. |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-305-17689-8 |page=82 |quote=The reason some individuals develop a gay sexual identity has not been definitively established – nor do we yet understand the development of heterosexuality. The American Psychological Association (APA) takes the position that a variety of factors impact a person's sexuality. The most recent literature from the APA says that sexual orientation is not a choice that can be changed at will, and that sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors. is shaped at an early age. and evidence suggests biological, including genetic or inborn hormonal factors, play a significant role in a person's sexuality (American Psychological Association 2010). |access-date=11 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="Stuart">{{cite book |first=Gail Wiscarz |last=Stuart |title=Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Nursing |publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]] |isbn=978-0-323-29412-6 |year=2014 |page=502 |access-date=11 February 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ivALBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA502 |quote=No conclusive evidence supports any one specific cause of homosexuality; however, most researchers agree that biological and social factors influence the development of sexual orientation.}}</ref> and do not view it as a choice.<ref name="pediatrics2004"/><ref name="Lamanna"/><ref name="Kersey-Matusiak">{{cite book |first=Gloria |last=Kersey-Matusiak |title=Delivering Culturally Competent Nursing Care |publisher=[[Springer Publishing Company]] |isbn=978-0-8261-9381-0|year=2012 |page=169 |access-date=10 February 2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8O_wGedAYoC&pg=PA169 |quote=Most health and mental health organizations do not view sexual orientation as a 'choice.'}}</ref> Although no single theory on the cause of sexual orientation has yet gained widespread support, scientists favor [[Biology and sexual orientation|biologically based theories]].<ref name="pediatrics2004">{{cite journal |doi=10.1542/peds.113.6.1827 |last1=Frankowski |first1=B. L. |author2=American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence |title=Sexual orientation and adolescents |journal=[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]] |volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=1827–32 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15173519 |doi-access=free}}</ref> There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males.<ref name=Bailey16>{{cite journal |last1=Bailey |first1=J. Michael |last2=Vasey |first2=Paul |last3=Diamond |first3=Lisa |author4-link=Marc Breedlove |last4=Breedlove |first4=S. Marc |last5=Vilain |first5=Eric |last6=Epprecht |first6=Marc |title=Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science |journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest |date=2016 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=45–101 |doi=10.1177/1529100616637616 |pmid=27113562 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301639075 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=LeVay>{{cite book |last=LeVay |first=Simon |date=2017 |title=Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmQFFfa03nkC |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-975296-6}}</ref><ref name=Balthazart>{{cite book |last=Balthazart |first=Jacques |date=2012 |title=The Biology of Homosexuality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3fjGjlcVINkC |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-983882-0}}</ref> There is no substantive evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences play a role with regard to sexual orientation.<ref name="rcp2007">{{cite web |title=Submission to the Church of England's Listening Exercise on Human Sexuality |url=http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/workinpsychiatry/specialinterestgroups/gaylesbian/submissiontothecofe/psychiatryandlgbpeople.aspx#history |publisher=The Royal College of Psychiatrists |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117212459/http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/workinpsychiatry/specialinterestgroups/gaylesbian/submissiontothecofe/psychiatryandlgbpeople.aspx |archive-date=17 January 2013 |access-date=13 June 2013}}</ref>

An active conflict over the cultural acceptability of [[non-heterosexual]]ity rages worldwide.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Maurianne |last1=Adams |first2=Lee Anne |last2=Bell |first3=Pat |last3=Griffin |date=2007 |title=Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=198–199 |isbn=978-1135928506 |quote=Because of the complicated interplay among gender identity, gender roles, and sexual identity, transgender people are often assumed to be lesbian or gay (See Overview: Sexism, Heterosexism, and Transgender Oppression). ... Because transgender identity challenges a binary conception of sexuality and gender, educators must clarify their own understanding of these concepts. ... Facilitators must be able to help participants understand the connections among sexism, heterosexism, and transgender oppression and the ways in which gender roles are maintained, in part, through homophobia.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Claire M. |last1=Renzetti |first2=Jeffrey L. |last2=Edleson |date=2008 |title=Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Violence |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |page=338 |isbn=978-1452265919 |quote=In a culture of homophobia (an irrational fear of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender [GLBT] people), GLBT people often face a heightened risk of violence specific to their sexual identities.}}</ref><ref>2014 Report on State Sponsored Homophobia Retrieved 4 Mar 15 from {{cite web |url=http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 May 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020202330/http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last1=Bruce-Jones |first1=Eddie |last2=Itaborahy |first2=Lucas Paoli |date=May 2011 |title=State-sponsored Homophobia |url=https://ilga.org/resources/state-sponsored-homophobia-report-2011-ilga/ |publisher=[[ILGA]] |access-date=15 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=West |first=D. J. |title=Homosexuality re-examined |location=Minneapolis |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]] |date=1977 |isbn=0-8166-0812-1}}</ref>{{pn|date=February 2025}} The belief or assumption that [[heterosexual]] relationships and acts are "normal" is described as [[heterosexism]] or in [[queer theory]], [[heteronormativity]]. Gender identity and sexual orientation are two separate aspects of individual identity, although they are often mistaken in the media.<ref name="GLAAD">Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. [http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender "GLAAD Media Reference Guide, 8th Edition. Transgender Glossary of Terms"], ''[[GLAAD]]'', USA, May 2010. Retrieved 20 November 2011.</ref>

Perhaps it is an attempt to reconcile this conflict that leads to a common assumption that one same-sex partner assumes a pseudo-male gender role and the other assumes a pseudo-female role. For a gay male relationship, this might lead to the assumption that the "wife" handled domestic chores, was the receptive sexual partner, adopted effeminate mannerisms, and perhaps even dressed in women's clothing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mager |first1=Don |title=Gay Theories of Gender Role Deviance |journal=SubStance |date=1985 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=32–48 |doi=10.2307/3684953 |jstor=3684953}}</ref> This assumption is flawed because homosexual couples tend to have more equal roles, and the effeminate behavior of some gay men is usually not adopted consciously, and is often more subtle.<ref name=Dwyer>{{cite book |last=Dwyer |first=D. |title=Interpersonal Relationships |year=2000 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-203-01971-9 |page=104 |edition=2nd}}</ref>

Cohabitating same-sex partners are typically egalitarian when they assign domestic chores.<ref name=":7">{{cite book|last=Cherlin|first=Andrew|title=Public and Private Families, an introduction|year=2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.|page=234}}</ref> Sometimes these couples assign traditional female responsibilities to one partner and traditional male responsibilities to the other. Same-sex [[domestic partners]] challenge traditional gender roles in their division of household responsibilities, and gender roles within homosexual relationships are flexible.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crook|first=Robert|title=Our Sexuality|year=2011|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|page=271}}</ref> For instance, cleaning and cooking, traditionally regarded by many as both female responsibilities, might be assigned to different people. Carrington observed the daily home lives of 52 gay and lesbian couples and found that the length of the work week and level of earning power substantially affected the assignment of housework, regardless of gender or sexuality.<ref>Carrington, C. (1999) No place like home: Relationships and family life among lesbians and gay men. The University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref name=":7"/>

In many cultures, gender roles, especially for men, simultaneously act as an indicator for heterosexuality, and as a boundary of acceptable behavior for straight people. Therefore, lesbians, gay men and bisexual people may be viewed as exempt from some or all components of gender roles or as having different "rules" they are expected to follow by society.

These modified "rules" for lesbian, gay and bisexual people may also be oppressive. Morgan examines the plight of homosexuals seeking [[right of asylum|asylum]] from homophobic persecution who have been turned away by US customs for "not being gay enough"; not conforming sufficiently to standard (Western) conceptions of the gender roles occupied by gays and lesbians.<ref>Morgan, D. (2006) Not gay enough for the government: Racial and sexual stereotypes in sexual orientation asylum cases. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Legal Issues http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/lsex15&div=9&g_sent=1&collection=journals#141</ref>

Conversely, heterosexual men and women who are not perceived as being sufficiently masculine or feminine, respectively, may be assumed to be, or suspected to be, homosexual, and persecuted for their perceived homosexuality.