Editing Franco-Prussian War (section)

==War of the Government of National Defence==

===Government of National Defence===
[[File:Franco-Prussian-War Phase 2 deu ger all.svg|thumb|upright=1.7|Course of the second phase of the war (part 1: 1 September to 30 November)]]
[[File:Franco-Prussian-War Phase 3 deu ger all.svg|thumb|upright=1.7|Course of the second phase of the war (part 2: 1 December until the end of the war)]]

When news of Napoleon III's surrender at Sedan arrived in Paris, the Second Empire was overthrown by a popular uprising. On 4 September, [[Jules Favre]], [[Léon Gambetta]], and General [[Louis-Jules Trochu]] proclaimed a provisional government called the [[Government of National Defence]] and a [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]].{{sfn|Baldick|1974|pp=20–21}} After the German victory at Sedan, most of the French standing army was either besieged in Metz or held prisoner by the Germans, who hoped for an armistice and an end to the war. Bismarck wanted an early peace but had difficulty finding a legitimate French authority with whom to negotiate. The Emperor was a captive and the Empress in exile, but there had been no abdication ''de jure'' and the army was still bound by an oath of allegiance to the defunct imperial regime; on the other hand, the Government of National Defence had no electoral mandate.{{sfn|Howard|1979|pp=228–231}}

Prussia's intention was to weaken the political position of France abroad. The defensive position of the new French authorities, who offered Germany an honorable peace and reimbursement of the costs of the war, was presented by Prussia as aggressive; they rejected the conditions put forward and demanded the annexation of the French provinces of Alsace and part of Lorraine. Bismarck was dangling the Emperor over the republic's head, calling Napoleon III "the legitimate ruler of France" and dismissing Gambetta's new republic as no more than "''un coup de parti''" ("a partisan coup").{{sfn|Wawro|2003|p=240}} This policy was to some extent successful; the European press discussed the legitimacy of the French authorities, and Prussia's aggressive position was to some extent understood. Only the United States and Spain recognized the Government of National Defence immediately after the announcement; other countries refused to do this for some time.{{sfn|Wawro|2003|p=239}}

The question of legitimacy is rather strange for France after [[1851 French coup d'état|the coup d'état of 1851]], since Louis-Napoleon himself only overthrew the Second Republic and rose to the imperial throne by means of a coup d'état.

The Germans expected to negotiate an end to the war, but while the republican government was amenable to [[war reparations]] or ceding colonial territories in Africa or Southeast Asia, it would go no further. On behalf of the Government of National Defense, Favre declared on 6 September that France would not "yield an inch of its territory nor a stone of its fortresses".{{sfn|Craig|1980|p=31}} The republic then renewed the declaration of war, called for recruits in all parts of the country, and pledged to drive the German troops out of France by a {{lang|fr|[[Attaque à outrance|guerre à outrance]]}} ('overwhelming attack').{{sfn|Howard|1979|p=234}} The Germans continued the war, yet could not pin down any proper military opposition in their vicinity. As the bulk of the remaining French armies was digging in near Paris, the German leaders decided to put pressure upon their enemy by attacking there. By 15 September, German troops had reached the outskirts and Moltke issued the orders to [[Investment (military)|surround]] the city. On 19 September, the Germans surrounded it and erected a blockade, as already established at Metz, completing the encirclement on 20 September.{{Clarify timeframe|date=February 2023}} Bismarck met Favre on 18 September at the [[Château de Ferrières]] and demanded a frontier immune to a French war of revenge, which included [[Strasbourg]], Alsace, and most of the [[Moselle (department)|Moselle department]] in Lorraine, of which Metz was the capital. In return for an armistice for the French to elect a National Assembly, Bismarck demanded the surrender of Strasbourg and the fortress city of [[Toul]]. To allow supplies into Paris, one of the perimeter forts had to be handed over. Favre was unaware that Bismarck's real aim in making such extortionate demands was to establish a durable peace on Germany's new western frontier, preferably by a peace with a friendly government, on terms acceptable to French public opinion.{{Clarify|date=February 2023|reason=Unclear how making these demands would lead to these aims}} An impregnable military frontier was an inferior alternative to him, favoured only by the militant nationalists on the German side.{{sfn|Howard|1991|pp=230–233}}

When the war had begun, European public opinion heavily favoured the Germans; many Italians attempted to sign up as volunteers at the Prussian embassy in [[Florence]] and a Prussian diplomat visited [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] in [[Caprera]]. Bismarck's demand that France surrender sovereignty over Alsace caused a dramatic shift in that sentiment in Italy, which was best exemplified by the reaction of Garibaldi soon after the revolution in Paris, who told the ''Movimento'' of Genoa on 7 September 1870 that "Yesterday I said to you: war to the death to Bonaparte. Today I say to you: rescue the French Republic by every means."{{sfn|Ridley|1976|p=602}} Garibaldi went to France and assumed command of the [[Army of the Vosges]], with which he operated around [[Dijon]] until the end of the war.

The energetic actions of a part of the government (delegation) in [[Tours]] under Gambetta's leadership led to significant success in the formation of a new army. In less than four months, with persistent battles at the front, eleven new corps were formed (Nos. XVI–XXVI). The average success of the formation was equal to six thousand infantrymen and two batteries per day. This success was achieved despite the fact that the military industry and warehouses were concentrated mainly in Paris; all supplies in the province—chiefs, weapons, camps, uniforms, ammunition, equipment, baggage—had to be improvised anew. Many branches of the military industry were re-established in the province. Freedom of communication with foreign markets brought significant benefits; it was possible to make large purchases on foreign markets, mainly English, Belgian, and American. The artillery created by Gambetta in four months—238 batteries—was one and a half times larger than the artillery of imperial France. In the end, eight corps participated in the battles, and three were ready only by the end of January, when a truce was already concluded.{{Sfn|Свечин (Svechin)|1928|page=327}}

While the Germans had a 2:1 numerical advantage before Napoleon III's surrender, this French recruitment gave them a 2:1 or 3:1 advantage. The French more than tripled their forces during the war, while the Germans did not increase theirs as much; the number of 888,000 mobilized by the North German Union in August increased by only 2% after {{frac|3|1|2}} months, and by the end of the war, six months later, only by 15%, which did not even balance the losses incurred. Prussia was completely unaware of the feverish activity of permanent mobilization. This disparity in forces created a crisis for the Germans at the front in November 1870,{{Sfn|Свечин (Svechin)|1928|page=332}} which only the release of the large forces besieging the fortress of Metz allowed them to overcome.

===Siege of Paris===
[[File:Anton von Werner - Im Etappenquartier vor Paris - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Troops quarter in Paris, by [[Anton von Werner]] (1894)]]

{{main|Siege of Paris (1870–1871)}}

Prussian forces commenced the [[Siege of Paris (1870)|siege of Paris]] on 19 September 1870. Faced with the blockade, the new French government called for the establishment of several large armies in the French provinces. These new bodies of troops were to march towards Paris and attack the Germans there from various directions at the same time. Armed French civilians were to create a guerilla force—the so-called ''[[Francs-tireurs]]''—for the purpose of attacking German [[supply line]]s.

Bismarck was an active supporter of the bombardment of the city. He sought to end the war as soon as possible, very much fearing a change in the international situation unfavorable to Prussia, as he himself called it "the intervention of neutrals".{{Sfn|Wawro|2003|p=280}} Therefore, Bismarck constantly and actively insisted on the early start of the bombardment, despite all the objections of the military command. Von Blumenthal, who commanded the siege, was opposed to the bombardment on moral grounds. In this he was backed by other senior military figures such as the Crown Prince and Moltke. Nevertheless, in January, the Germans fired some 12,000 shells (300–400 daily) into the city.{{sfn|Howard|1991|p=286}}

The siege of the city caused great hardships for the population, especially for the poor from cold and hunger.

===Loire campaign===
[[File:Bapaume-tableau-Faidherbe.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Bapaume (1871)|Battle of Bapaume]], which took place from 2–3 January 1871]]

Dispatched from Paris as the republican government emissary, Léon Gambetta flew over the German lines in a balloon inflated with coal gas from the city's gasworks and organized the recruitment of the [[Armée de la Loire]]. Rumors about an alleged German "extermination" plan infuriated the French and strengthened their support of the new regime. Within a few weeks, five new armies totalling more than 500,000 troops were recruited.{{sfn|Foley|2007|pp=19–20}}

The Germans dispatched some of their troops to the French provinces to detect, attack and disperse the new French armies before they could become a menace. The Germans were not prepared for an occupation of the whole of France.

On 10 October, hostilities began between German and French republican forces near [[Orléans]]. At first, the Germans were victorious but the French drew reinforcements and defeated a Bavarian force at the [[Battle of Coulmiers]] on 9 November. After the surrender of [[Siege of Metz (1870)|Metz]], more than 100,000 well-trained and experienced German troops joined the German 'Southern Army'. The French were forced to [[Second Battle of Orléans (1870)|abandon Orléans]] on 4 December, and were finally defeated at the [[Battle of Le Mans]] {{nowrap|(10–12 January)}}. A second French army which operated north of Paris was turned back at the [[Battle of Amiens (1870)|Battle of Amiens]] (27 November), the [[Battle of Bapaume (1871)|Battle of Bapaume]] (3 January 1871) and the [[Battle of St. Quentin (1871)|Battle of St. Quentin]] (13 January).{{sfn| Shann | Delperier |1991|p=4}}

===Northern campaign===
Following the Army of the Loire's defeats, Gambetta turned to [[Louis Faidherbe|General Faidherbe]]'s [[Army of the North (France)|Army of the North]].{{sfn| Hozier | Davenport Adams |1872|p=217ff}} The army had achieved several small victories at towns such as Ham, La Hallue, and [[Amiens]] and was protected by the belt of fortresses in northern France, allowing Faidherbe's men to launch quick attacks against isolated Prussian units, then retreat behind the fortresses. Despite access to the armaments factories of [[Lille]], the Army of the North suffered from severe supply difficulties, which depressed morale. In January 1871, Gambetta forced Faidherbe to march his army beyond the fortresses and engage the Prussians in open battle. The army was severely weakened by low morale, supply problems, the terrible winter weather and low troop quality, whilst general Faidherbe was unable to command due to his poor health, the result of decades of campaigning in [[West Africa]]. At the Battle of St. Quentin, the Army of the North suffered a crushing defeat and was scattered, releasing thousands of Prussian soldiers to be relocated to the East.{{sfn| Ollier |1883|p=210}}

===Eastern campaign===
[[File:Armée-Bourb-en-Suisse.jpg|thumb|The French Army of the East is disarmed at the Swiss border in [[Bourbaki Panorama|the monumental 1881 depiction]].]]
Following the destruction of the French Army of the Loire, remnants of the Loire army gathered in eastern France to form the [[Armée de l'Est|Army of the East]], commanded by general [[Charles-Denis Bourbaki]]. In a final attempt to cut the German supply lines in northeast France, Bourbaki's army marched north to attack the Prussian siege of [[Belfort]] and relieve the defenders.

The French troops had a significant advantage (110 thousand soldiers against 40 thousand). The French offensive took the Germans by surprise and by mid-January 1871, the French had reached the Lisaine River, just a few kilometers from the besieged fortress of Belfort.

In the [[battle of the Lisaine]], Bourbaki's men failed to break through German lines commanded by General [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich August Leopold, Count von Werder|August von Werder]]. Bringing in the German 'Southern Army', General [[Edwin Freiherr von Manteuffel|von Manteuffel]] then drove Bourbaki's army into the mountains near the Swiss border. Bourbaki attempted to commit suicide, though survived his wound.{{sfn|Howard|1991|p=429}} Facing annihilation, the last intact French army of 87,000 men (now commanded by General [[Justin Clinchant]]){{sfn|Howard|1991|p=421}} crossed the border and was disarmed and interned by the neutral Swiss near [[Pontarlier]] (1 February).

The besieged fortress of Belfort continued to resist until the signing of the armistice, repelling a German attempt to capture the fortress on 27 January, which was some consolation for the French in this stubborn and unhappy campaign.

===Armistice===
{{more citations needed section|date=July 2020}}
{{Main|Armistice of Versailles}}

[[File:Pierre Puvis de Chavannes - Hope - Walters 37156.jpg|thumb|In this painting by [[Pierre Puvis de Chavannes]] a woman holds up an oak twig as a symbol of hope for the nation's recovery from war and deprivation after the Franco-Prussian War.{{sfn| de Chavannes |1872}} The Walters Art Museum.]]
On 26 January 1871, the Government of National Defence based in Paris negotiated an armistice with the Prussians. With Paris starving, and Gambetta's provincial armies reeling from one disaster after another, French foreign minister Favre went to [[Versailles (city)|Versailles]] on 24 January to discuss peace terms with Bismarck. Bismarck agreed to end the siege and allow food convoys to immediately enter Paris (including trains carrying millions of German army rations), on condition that the Government of National Defence surrender several key fortresses outside Paris to the Prussians. Without the forts, the French Army would no longer be able to defend Paris.

Although public opinion in Paris was strongly against any form of surrender or concession to the Prussians, the Government realised that it could not hold the city for much longer, and that Gambetta's provincial armies would probably never break through to relieve Paris. President Trochu resigned on 25 January and was replaced by Favre, who signed the surrender two days later at Versailles, with the armistice coming into effect at midnight.

On 28 January, a truce was concluded for 21 days, after the exhaustion of food and fuel supplies, the Paris garrison capitulated, the National Guard retained its weapons, while German troops occupied part of the forts of Paris to prevent the possibility of resuming hostilities. But military operations continued in the eastern part of the country, in the area of operation of the Bourbaki army. The French side, having no reliable information about the outcome of the struggle, insisted on excluding this area from the truce in the hope of a successful outcome of the struggle.{{Sfn|Wawro|2003|p=298}} The Germans did not dissuade the French.

Several sources claim that in his carriage on the way back to Paris, Favre broke into tears, and collapsed into his daughter's arms as the guns around Paris fell silent at midnight. At [[Bordeaux]], Gambetta received word from Paris on 29 January that the Government had surrendered. Furious, he refused to surrender. [[Jules Simon]], a member of the Government arrived from Paris by train on 1 February to negotiate with Gambetta. Another group of three ministers arrived in Bordeaux on 5 February and the following day Gambetta stepped down and surrendered control of the provincial armies to the Government of National Defence, which promptly ordered a cease-fire across France.