Editing Edward I of England (section)

==Later reign, 1297–1307==

===Constitutional crisis===
The incessant warfare of the 1290s put a great financial demand on Edward's subjects. Whereas the King had levied only three lay subsidies until 1294, four such taxes were granted in the years 1294–1297, raising over £200,000.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1972|p=179}}.</ref>{{efn|£141m at 2017 prices, or 20 million days' labour for a skilled tradesman.<ref>{{harvnb|National Archives|2024}}</ref>}} Along with this came the burden of [[prise]]s, seizure of wool and hides, and the unpopular additional duty on wool, dubbed the ''[[maltolt]]'' ("unjustly taken").<ref>{{Harvnb|Harriss|1975|p=57}}.</ref> The fiscal demands on the King's subjects caused resentment, which eventually led to serious political opposition. The initial resistance was caused not by the lay taxes, but by clerical subsidies. In 1294, Edward made a demand of a grant of one-half of all clerical revenues. There was some resistance, but the King responded by threatening opponents with [[outlaw]]ry, and the grant was eventually made.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=403–404}}.</ref> At the time, [[Robert Winchelsey]], the designated Archbishop of Canterbury, was in Italy to receive consecration.<ref name=Powicke1962P671/>{{Efn|Winchelsey's consecration was held up by the protracted [[1292–1294 papal election]].<ref name="Powicke1962P671">{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=671}}.</ref>}} Winchelsey returned in January 1295 and had to consent to another grant that November. In 1296, his position changed when he received the [[papal bull]] ''[[Clericis laicos]]''. This prohibited the clergy from paying taxes to lay authorities without explicit consent from the Pope.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=674}}.</ref> When the clergy, with reference to the bull, refused to pay, Edward responded with outlawry.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=675}}.</ref> Winchelsey was presented with a dilemma between loyalty to the King and upholding the papal bull, and he responded by leaving it to every individual clergyman to pay as he saw fit.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=417}}.</ref> By the end of the year, a solution was offered by the new papal bull ''[[Etsi de statu]]'', which allowed clerical taxation in cases of pressing urgency.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=430}}.</ref> This allowed Edward to collect considerable sums by taxing the English clergy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=562}}.</ref>
{{Quote box|'''Edward'''<br />By God, Sir Earl, either go or hang<br />'''Roger Bigod'''<br />By that same oath, O king, I shall neither go nor hang|Chronicle of [[Walter of Guisborough]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=416}}.</ref>|align=right}}

Opposition from the laity took longer to surface. This resistance focused on the King's right to demand military service and his right to levy taxes. At the Salisbury Parliament of February 1297, the [[Earl Marshal]] [[Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk]], objected to a royal summons of military service. Bigod argued that the military obligation only extended to service alongside the King; if the King intended to sail to Flanders, he could not send his subjects to Gascony.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1972|p=251}}.</ref> In July, Bigod and [[Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford]] and [[Constable of England]], drew up a series of complaints known as the [[Remonstrances]], in which objections to the high level of taxation were voiced.<ref>{{Harvnb|Harriss|1975|p=61}}.</ref> Undeterred, Edward requested another lay subsidy. This one was particularly provocative, because the King had sought consent from only a small group of magnates, rather than from representatives of the communities in Parliament.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=422}}.</ref> While Edward was in [[Winchelsea]], preparing for the [[English expedition to Flanders (1297–1298)|campaign in Flanders]], Bigod and de Bohun arrived at the Exchequer to prevent the collection of the tax.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=682}}.</ref> As the King left the country with a greatly reduced force, the kingdom seemed to be on the verge of civil war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=425}}, {{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=683}}.</ref> The English defeat by the Scots at the [[Battle of Stirling Bridge]] resolved the situation. The renewed threat to the homeland gave king and magnates common cause.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=427}}.</ref> Edward signed the ''[[Confirmatio cartarum]]''{{Spaced ndash}}a confirmation of Magna Carta and its accompanying [[Charter of the Forest]]{{Spaced ndash}}and the nobility agreed to serve with the King on a campaign in Scotland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=170}}, {{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=2}}</ref>

Edward's problems with the opposition did not end with the Scottish campaign. Over the following years he would be held to the promises he had made, in particular that of upholding the Charter of the Forest. In the Parliament of 1301, the King was forced to order an assessment of the [[royal forest]]s, but in 1305 he obtained a papal bull that freed him from this concession.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=525–526, 547–548}}.</ref> Ultimately, it was a change in personnel that spelt the end of the opposition against Edward. De Bohun died late in 1298, after returning from the Scottish campaign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=697}}.</ref> In 1302 Bigod arrived at an agreement with the King that was beneficial for both: Bigod, who had no children, made Edward his heir, in return for a generous annual grant.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=537–538}}.</ref> Edward got his revenge on Winchelsey, who had been opposed to the King's policy of clerical taxation,<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|pp=172–173}}.</ref> in 1305, when [[Clement V]] was elected pope. Clement was a Gascon sympathetic to the King, and on Edward's instigation had Winchelsey suspended from office.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=175}}.</ref>

===Return to Scotland===
{{See also|First Scottish War of Independence}}
[[File:Edward 1.png|thumb|left|alt=Front-view of a seated Edward, wearing a crown and holding a sceptre, pointing to something with his left hand|[[Portrait miniature|Miniature]] depiction of Edward I dating from the reign of his son {{nowrap|Edward II}}]]
Edward believed that he had completed the conquest of Scotland when he left the country in 1296, but resistance soon emerged under the leadership of [[Andrew de Moray]] in the north and [[William Wallace]] in the south. On 11&nbsp;September 1297, a large English force under the leadership of John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey, and [[Hugh de Cressingham]] was routed by a much smaller Scottish army led by Wallace and Moray at the Battle of Stirling Bridge.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barrow|1965|pp=123–126}}.</ref> The defeat sent shockwaves into England, and preparations for a retaliatory campaign started immediately. Soon after Edward returned from Flanders, he headed north.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|pp=688–689}}.</ref> On 22&nbsp;July 1298, in the only major battle he had fought since Evesham in 1265, Edward defeated Wallace's forces at the [[Battle of Falkirk]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=479}}.</ref> Edward was not able to take advantage of the momentum<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=565}}.</ref> and the next year the Scots recaptured [[Stirling Castle]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Watson|1998|pp=92–93}}.</ref> Even though Edward campaigned in Scotland in 1300, when he successfully besieged [[Caerlaverock Castle]] and in 1301, the Scots refused to engage in open battle again, preferring instead to raid the English countryside in smaller groups.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=233}}.</ref>

The Scots appealed to [[Pope Boniface VIII]] to assert a papal claim of overlordship to Scotland in place of the English. His papal bull addressed to King Edward in these terms was firmly rejected on Edward's behalf by the [[Barons' Letter of 1301]]. The English managed to subdue the country by other means: in 1303, a peace agreement was reached between England and France, effectively breaking up the Franco-Scottish alliance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=497}}.</ref> [[Robert the Bruce]], the grandson of the claimant to the crown in 1291, had sided with the English in the winter of 1301–02.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=496}}.</ref> In 1304, most of the other nobles of the country had also pledged their allegiance to Edward, and the English also managed to re-take Stirling Castle.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|pp=709–711}}.</ref> A great propaganda victory was achieved in 1305 when Wallace was betrayed by Sir [[John de Menteith]] and turned over to the English, who had him taken to London and publicly executed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Watson|1998|p=211}}.</ref> With Scotland largely under English control, Edward installed Englishmen and collaborating Scots to govern the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|pp=711–713}}.</ref>

The situation changed again on 10&nbsp;February 1306, when Robert the Bruce murdered his rival [[John Comyn]],<ref name="Hamilton81">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=81}}.</ref> and a few weeks later, on 25&nbsp;March, was crowned King of Scotland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barrow|1965|pp=206–207, 212–213}}.</ref> Bruce now embarked on a campaign to restore Scottish independence, and this took the English by surprise.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=506}}.</ref> Edward was suffering ill health by this time, and instead of leading an expedition himself, he gave different military commands to [[Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke]], and [[Henry Percy, 1st Baron Percy]], while the main royal army was led by the Prince of Wales.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=506–507}}.</ref> The English initially met with success; on 19&nbsp;June, Aymer de Valence routed Bruce at the [[Battle of Methven]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Barrow|1965|p=216}}.</ref> Bruce was forced into hiding, and the English forces recaptured their lost territory and castles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=507–508}}.</ref>

Edward acted with unusual brutality against Bruce's family, allies, and supporters. His sister, [[Mary Bruce|Mary]], was imprisoned in a cage at [[Roxburgh Castle]] for four years. [[Isabella MacDuff, Countess of Buchan]], who had crowned Bruce, was held in a cage at [[Berwick Castle]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Salzman|1968|p=173}}.</ref> His younger brother [[Nigel de Brus|Neil]] was executed by being [[hanged, drawn, and quartered]]; he had been captured after he and his garrison held off Edward's forces who had been seeking his [[Elizabeth de Burgh|wife]], [[Marjorie Bruce|daughter]] and sisters.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cornell|2009|pp=63–65}}.</ref> Edward now regarded the struggle not as a war between two nations, but as the suppression of a rebellion of disloyal subjects.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=508–509}}.</ref> This brutality, rather than helping to subdue the Scots, had the opposite effect, and rallied growing support for Bruce.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=239}}.</ref>

===Death and burial===
[[File:Tomb of Edward.jpg|thumb|left|alt=An open tomb seen from the side in a 45-degree angle from the ground. The corpse, with his head to the left, is dressed in fine funeral attire, wears a coronet and holds a sceptre in each hand.|Remains of Edward I, from an illustration made when his tomb was opened in 1774]]
In February 1307, Bruce resumed his efforts and started gathering men, and in May he defeated Valence at the [[Battle of Loudoun Hill]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Barrow|1965|p=244}}.</ref> Edward, who had rallied somewhat, now moved north himself. He developed [[dysentery]] on the way, and his condition deteriorated. On 6&nbsp;July he encamped at [[Burgh by Sands]], just south of the Scottish border. When his servants came the next morning to lift him up so that he could eat, the King died in their arms.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=556–557}}; {{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=86}}, {{Harvnb|Jenks|1902|p=303}}.</ref>

Several stories emerged about Edward's deathbed wishes; according to one tradition, he requested that his heart be carried to the Holy Land, along with an army to fight the infidels.<ref name="Hamilton86">{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=86}}.</ref> A more dubious story tells of how he wished for his bones to be carried along on future expeditions against the Scots.{{sfn|Jenks|1902|p=303}} Another account of his deathbed scene is more credible; according to one chronicle, Edward gathered around him [[Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln]]; [[Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick]]; Aymer de Valence; and [[Robert de Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford]], and charged them with looking after his son Edward. In particular they should make sure that Piers Gaveston, whom he had banished earlier that year,<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=719}}.</ref> was not allowed to return to the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=557}}.</ref> The new king, Edward&nbsp;II, ignored his father's wish, and had his favourite recalled from exile almost immediately.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=377}}.</ref> Edward&nbsp;II remained in the north until August, but then abandoned the campaign and headed south, partially due to financial limitations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barrow|1965|p=246}}; {{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=99}}.</ref> He was crowned king on 25&nbsp;February 1308.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=179}}.</ref>
[[File:Memorial to King Edward I of England at Burgh Marsh, Cumbria.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|alt=Front-view of a fenced memorial pillar located at Burgh Marsh, topped with a cross. The memorial is said to mark the exact spot where King Edward died.|The 19th-century memorial to Edward I at [[Burgh by Sands|Burgh Marsh]]. This structure replaced an earlier one and is said to mark the exact spot where he died.]]
Edward&nbsp;I's body was brought south, lying in state at [[Waltham Abbey]], before being buried in Westminster Abbey on 27&nbsp;October.<ref name="Duffy2003P96">{{Harvnb|Duffy|2003|p=96}}, {{Harvnb|Salzman|1968|p=175}}.</ref> There are few records of the funeral, which cost £473.<ref name="Duffy2003P96" />{{efn|14,300 days labour for a skilled tradesman, or approximately £101,000 at 2017 prices.<ref>{{harvnb|National Archives|2024}}</ref>}}

Edward's tomb was an unusually plain [[sarcophagus]] of [[Purbeck marble]], without the customary royal [[effigy]], possibly the result of the shortage of royal funds.<ref>{{Harvnb|Duffy|2003|pp=96–98}}.</ref> The [[Society of Antiquaries of London]] opened the tomb in 1774, finding that the body had been well preserved over the preceding 467 years, and took the opportunity to determine the King's original height.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=566–567}}.</ref>{{Efn|The original report can be found in: {{Cite journal |last=Ayloffe |first=J. |year=1786 |title=An Account of the Body of King Edward the First, as it appeared on opening his Tomb in the year 1774 |journal=Archaeologia |volume=iii |pages=386, 398–412 |doi=10.1017/S0261340900016301}}}} Traces of the [[Latin]] inscription ''Edwardus Primus Scottorum Malleus hic est, 1308. Pactum Serva'' ("Here is Edward&nbsp;I, Hammer of the Scots, 1308. Keep the Troth")<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=87}}.</ref> can still be seen painted on the side of the tomb, referring to his vow to avenge the rebellion of Robert the Bruce.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=378}}; {{Harvnb|Duffy|2003|p=97}}.</ref> This resulted in Edward being given the epithet the "Hammer of the Scots" by historians, but is not contemporary in origin, having been added by the Abbot [[John Feckenham]] in the 16th century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=566}}; {{Harvnb|Duffy|2003|p=97}}.</ref>