Editing Education reform (section)

==== Civil rights reform ====
Systemic bias remained a formidable barrier. From the 1950s to the 1970s, many of the proposed and implemented reforms in U.S. education stemmed from the [[civil rights movement]] and related trends; examples include [[school integration in the United States|ending racial segregation]], and [[Desegregation busing in the United States|busing for the purpose of desegregation]], [[affirmative action]], and banning of [[school prayer]].<ref>Tyack and Cuban, p. 29</ref>

In the early 1950s, most U.S. public schools operated under a legally sanctioned racial segregation system. Civil Rights reform movements sought to address the biases that ensure unequal distribution of academic resources such as school funding, qualified and experienced teachers, and learning materials to those socially excluded communities.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Grant|first=Marquis|title=What Is Educational Reform? - Issues & Timeline|url=https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-educational-reform-issues-timeline-quiz.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-11|website=study.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029150449/https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-educational-reform-issues-timeline-quiz.html |archive-date=2020-10-29 }}</ref>  In the early 1950s, the [[NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund|NAACP]] lawyers brought class-action lawsuits on behalf of black schoolchildren and their families in Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware, petitioning court orders to compel school districts to let black students attend white public schools.<ref name=":7"/> Finally, in 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected that framework with [[Brown v. Board of Education]] and declared state-sponsored segregation of public schools unconstitutional.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Civil Rights in Education: Law and History|url=https://www.findlaw.com/civilrights/civil-rights-overview/civil-rights-in-education-law-and-history.html|access-date=2021-03-28|website=Findlaw|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 1964, [[Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964|Title VI of the Civil Rights Act]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 88-352 |date=1964 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-78/pdf/STATUTE-78-Pg241.pdf |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> "prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, and national origin in programs and activities receiving federal financial assistance.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-05-25|title=Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964|url=https://www.justice.gov/crt/fcs/titlevi|access-date=2021-04-19|website=www.justice.gov|language=en}}</ref>" Educational institutions could now utilize public funds to implement in-service training programs to assist teachers and administrators in establishing desegregation plans.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rights (OCR)|first=Office for Civil|date=2009-01-15|title=Civil Rights Requirements Title VI of the Civil Rights Act|url=https://www.hhs.gov/civil-rights/for-individuals/special-topics/needy-families/civil-rights-requirements/index.html|access-date=2021-04-19|website=HHS.gov|language=en}}</ref>

In 1965, the [[Higher Education Act of 1965|Higher Education Act]] (HEA)<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 89–329 |date=1965 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-79/pdf/STATUTE-79-Pg1219.pdf#page=37 |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> authorizes federal aid for postsecondary students.

[[Elementary and Secondary Education Act|The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965]] (ESEA) represents the federal government's commitment to providing equal access to quality education; including those children from low-income families, limited English proficiency, and other minority groups.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Jeffrey, Julie Roy|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1135189489|title=Education for children of the poor : a study of the origins and implementation of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965|date=1978|publisher=Ohio State University Press|isbn=0-8142-0277-2|oclc=1135189489}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-02-03|title=Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965|url=https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/programs/education/elementary-and-secondary-education-act-of-1965/|access-date=2021-04-18|website=Social Welfare History Project|language=en-US}}</ref> This legislation had positive retroactive implications for [[Historically black colleges and universities|Historically Black Colleges and Universities]], more commonly known as HBCUs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=What is an HBCU? {{!}} White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities|url=https://sites.ed.gov/whhbcu/one-hundred-and-five-historically-black-colleges-and-universities/|access-date=2021-04-18|language=en-US}}</ref><blockquote>"[[Higher Education Act of 1965|The Higher Education Act of 1965]], as amended, defines an HBCU as: "…any historically black college or university that was established prior to 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the education of black Americans, and that is accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association determined by the Secretary [of Education] to be a reliable authority as to the quality of training offered or is, according to such an agency or association, making reasonable progress toward accreditation."<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>Known as the [[Bilingual Education Act]], [[Elementary and Secondary Education Act|Title VII]] of ESEA,<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 90-247 |date=1968 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-81/pdf/STATUTE-81-Pg783.pdf |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> offered federal aid to school districts to provide bilingual instruction for students with limited English speaking ability.<ref>{{Cite web|title=IA2 Federal Legislation - Title VII|url=https://web.stanford.edu/~hakuta/www/LAU/IAPolicy/IA2LegFedTiVII.htm#:~:text=Title%20VII%20of%20the%20Elementary%20and%20Secondary%20Education%20Act%20(ESEA,by%20non-English%20speaking%20students.&text=In%20addition%20to%20providing%20funds,professional%20development%20and%20research%20activities.|access-date=2021-04-18|website=web.stanford.edu}}</ref>

The [[Education Amendments of 1972]] (Public Law 92-318, 86 Stat. 327) establishes the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Education Division in the U.S. Department of Health]], Education, and Welfare and the [[Institute of Education Sciences|National Institute of Education]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-08-15|title=Records of the National Institute of Education [NIE]|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/419.html|access-date=2021-04-19|website=National Archives|language=en}}</ref> Title IX of the [[Education Amendments of 1972]] states, "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-08-06|title=Title Ix Of The Education Amendments Of 1972|url=https://www.justice.gov/crt/title-ix-education-amendments-1972|access-date=2021-04-19|website=www.justice.gov|language=en}}</ref>"

[[Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 93-380 |date=1974 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/house-bill/69 |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> - Civil Rights Amendments to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965:<blockquote>"Title I: [[Bilingual Education Act]] - Authorizes appropriations for carrying out the provisions of this Act. Establishes, in the [[U.S. Office of Education|Office of Education]], an Office of Bilingual Education through which the Commissioner of Education shall carry out his functions relating to bilingual education. Authorizes appropriations for school nutrition and health services, correction education services, and ethnic heritage studies centers.

Title II: Equal Educational Opportunities and the Transportation of Students: [[Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974|Equal Educational Opportunities Act]] - Provides that no state shall deny equal educational opportunity to an individual on account of his or her race, color, sex, or national origin by means of specified practices...

Title IV: Consolidation of Certain Education Programs: Authorizes appropriations for use in various education programs including libraries and learning resources, education for use of the metric system of measurement, gifted and talented children programs, community schools, career education, consumers' education, women's equity in education programs, and arts in education programs.

Community Schools Act - Authorizes the Commissioner to make grants to local educational agencies to assist in planning, establishing, expanding, and operating community education programs

[[Women's Educational Equity Act]] - Establishes the Advisory Council on Women's Educational Programs and sets forth the composition of such Council. Authorizes the Commissioner of Education to make grants to, and enter into contracts with, public agencies, private nonprofit organizations, and individuals for activities designed to provide [[educational equity]] for women in the United States.

Title V: Education Administration: [[Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act]] (FERPA)- Provides that no funds shall be made available under the General Education Provisions Act to any State or local educational agency or educational institution which denies or prevents the parents of students to inspect and review all records and files regarding their children.

Title VII: National Reading Improvement Program: Authorizes the Commissioner to contract with State or local educational agencies for the carrying out by such agencies, in schools having large numbers of children with reading deficiencies, of demonstration projects involving the use of innovative methods, systems, materials, or programs which show promise of overcoming such reading deficiencies.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Perkins|first=Carl Dewey|date=1974-08-21|title=H.R.69 - 93rd Congress (1973-1974): Elementary and Secondary Education Amendments|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/house-bill/69|access-date=2021-04-19|website=www.congress.gov}}</ref>"</blockquote>In 1975, [[Education for All Handicapped Children Act|The Education for All Handicapped Children Act]] ([[Education for All Handicapped Children Act|Public Law 94-142]]) ensured that all handicapped children (age 3-21) receive a "free, appropriate public education" designed to meet their special needs.<ref>{{Citation|last=Dunn|first=Debra|title=Public Law 94-142|date=2013|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_393|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders|pages=2468–2471|editor-last=Volkmar|editor-first=Fred R.|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_393|isbn=978-1-4419-1698-3|s2cid=243505382 |access-date=2021-04-18}}</ref>