Editing Education (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of education}}
The history of education delves into the processes, methods, and institutions entwined with teaching and learning, aiming to elucidate their interplay and influence on educational practices over time.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ramsay|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bv9yAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA283 283–287]}} | {{harvnb|Briggs|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TvFrNwp604kC&pg=PA168 168]}} | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=1–2}} }}</ref>

=== Prehistory ===
Education during [[prehistory]] primarily facilitated [[enculturation]], emphasizing practical knowledge and skills essential for daily life, such as food production, clothing, shelter, and safety. Formal schools and specialized instructors were absent, with adults in the community assuming teaching roles, and learning transpiring informally through daily activities, including observation and [[imitation]] of elders. In [[Oral tradition|oral societies]], [[storytelling]] served as a pivotal means of transmitting cultural and religious beliefs across generations.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=5, 9–10, 12}} | {{harvnb|Power|1970|pp=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b201970&view=1up&seq=19 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Nwuzor|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XaI7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA104 104]}}}}</ref>{{efn|Research on prehistoric education often relies on studies of surviving hunting and gathering societies.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|p=12}}</ref>}} With the advent of agriculture during the [[Neolithic Revolution]] around 9000 BCE, a gradual educational shift toward specialization ensued, driven by the formation of larger communities and the demand for increasingly intricate artisanal and technical skills.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=12–13}} | {{harvnb|Beaulieu|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yMhQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 28]}} }}</ref>

=== Ancient era ===
Commencing in the 4th millennium BCE and spanning subsequent eras, a pivotal transformation in educational methodologies unfolded with the [[invention of writing|advent of writing]] in regions such as [[Mesopotamia]], [[ancient Egypt]], the [[Indus Valley]], and [[ancient China]].<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|p=13}} | {{harvnb|Friesen|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Ks-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 17–19]}} | {{harvnb|Kuskis|Logan|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDaCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 34]}} }}</ref>{{efn|There is no consensus on the precise timing of writing's invention, and various forms of [[proto-writing]] existed for much longer periods.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kortti|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Oh5HEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6]}} | {{harvnb|Crowley|Heyer|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cl6kCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT70 70]}} }}</ref>}} This breakthrough profoundly influenced the trajectory of education. Writing facilitated the storage, preservation, and dissemination of information, ushering in subsequent advancements such as the creation of educational aids like textbooks and the establishment of institutions such as schools.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hoskin|2021|pp=27–28}} |2={{harvnb|Friesen|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Ks-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 17–18]}} |3={{harvnb|Kuskis|Logan|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDaCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 34]}} |4={{harvnb|Sampath|1981|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NfhwWGPoV3sC&pg=PA30 30]}} }}</ref>

[[File:Plato's Academy mosaic from Pompeii.jpg|thumb|alt=Mosaic from Pompeii depicting Plato's Academy|Plato's Academy, depicted in a [[mosaic]] from [[Pompeii]], is frequently regarded as the inaugural institution of higher education.]]

Another significant aspect of ancient education was the establishment of formal education. This became necessary as civilizations evolved and the volume of knowledge expanded, surpassing what informal education could effectively transmit across generations. Teachers assumed specialized roles to impart knowledge, leading to a more abstract educational approach less tied to daily life. Formal education remained relatively rare in ancient societies, primarily accessible to the intellectual elite.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tillman|An|Robertson|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esyxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62–63]}} | {{harvnb|Green|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mJegEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16–17]}} | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=3, 5, 13, 15}} }}</ref> It covered fields like reading and writing, record keeping, leadership, civic and political life, religion, and technical skills associated with specific professions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=13–14}} | {{harvnb|Tillman|An|Robertson|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esyxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62–64]}} }}</ref> Formal education introduced a new teaching paradigm that emphasized discipline and drills over the informal methods prevalent earlier.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=13–14}} | {{harvnb|Tillman|An|Robertson|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esyxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62–63]}} }}</ref> Two notable achievements of ancient education include the founding of [[Plato's Academy]] in [[Ancient Greece]], often regarded as the earliest institution of higher learning,<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hughes|Gosney|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OzR6CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 43]}} |2={{harvnb|Lynch|1972|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VaYV57QiQDYC&pg=PA47 47]}} }}</ref> and the establishment of the [[Great Library of Alexandria]] in Ancient Egypt, renowned as one of the ancient world's premier libraries.<ref>{{harvnb|El-Abbadi|2023|loc=Lead Section}}</ref>

=== Medieval era ===
[[File:Archiginnasio ora blu Bologna.jpg|thumb|[[Bologna University]] in Italy, established in 1088 CE, is the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|world's oldest university in continuous operation]].]]

Many facets of education during the medieval period were profoundly influenced by religious traditions. In Europe, the [[Catholic Church]] wielded considerable authority over formal education.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=5, 43–44}} | {{harvnb|Young|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc-aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 109–111]}} | {{harvnb|Craver|Philipsen|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G8qoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA361 361]}} }}</ref> In the [[Arab world]], the rapid spread of [[Islam]] led to various educational advancements during the [[Islamic Golden Age]], integrating classical and religious knowledge and establishing [[madrasa]] schools.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=5, 43–44, 47}} | {{harvnb|Esposito|2003|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100125907 Madrasa]}} }}</ref> In Jewish communities, [[yeshivas]] emerged as institutions dedicated to the study of religious texts and [[Halakha|Jewish law]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bowker|2003|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-8089?rskey=Ba4XPQ&result=1 Yeshivah ]}} | {{harvnb|Walton|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jv9tCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA130 130]}} }}</ref> In China, an expansive [[Imperial examination|state educational and examination system]], shaped by [[Confucianism|Confucian]] teachings, was instituted.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=70–71}} | {{harvnb|Elman|2016|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190622671.001.0001/acref-9780190622671-e-116 Civil Service Examinations]}} | {{harvnb|Bastid|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x3M3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA10 10]}} }}</ref> As new complex societies emerged in regions like Africa, the Americas, Northern Europe, and Japan, some adopted existing educational practices, while others developed new traditions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=5, 43–44}} | {{harvnb|Patzuk-Russell|2021|p=1}} }}</ref> 

Additionally, this era witnessed the establishment of various institutes of higher education and research. Prominent among these were the [[University of Bologna]] (the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|world's oldest university in continuous operation]]), the [[University of Paris]], and [[Oxford University]] in Europe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=5, 60}} | {{harvnb|Kemmis|Edwards-Groves|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fFM7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 50]}} }}</ref> Other influential centers included the [[Al-Qarawiyyin University]] in Morocco,<ref>{{harvnb|Aqil|Babekri|Nadmi|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TGjvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 156]}}</ref> [[Al-Azhar University]] in Egypt,<ref>{{harvnb|Cosman|Jones|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-Jf5t1vFw1QC&pg=PA148 148]}}</ref> and the [[House of Wisdom]] in Iraq.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilliot|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=P-pGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT81 81]}}</ref> Another significant development was the formation of [[guild]]s, associations of skilled [[Master craftsman|craftsmen]] and merchants who regulated their trades and provided vocational education. Prospective members underwent various stages of training on their journey to mastery.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Power|1970|pp=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b201970&view=1up&seq=273 243–244]}} |2={{harvnb|Nicholas|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=92zXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 129]}} }}</ref>

=== Modern era ===
{{See also|Western education}}[[File:Printer in 1568-ce.png|thumb|alt=A woodcut from 1568 showing an old printing press|The invention of the printing press made written media widely available and led to a significant increase in general literacy levels.]]

Starting in the early modern period, education in Europe during the [[Renaissance]] slowly began to shift from a religious approach towards one that was more [[Secularization|secular]]. This development was tied to an increased appreciation of the importance of education and a broadened range of topics, including a revived interest in ancient literary texts and educational programs.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=6, 81–83}} | {{harvnb|Dekker|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C32mEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Grendler|2005|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/education-europe Lead Section, § From the Renaissance to the Enlightenment]}} }}</ref> The turn toward secularization was accelerated during the [[Age of Enlightenment]] starting in the 17th century, which emphasized the role of reason and the empirical sciences.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=6, 100–101}} | {{harvnb|Grendler|2005|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/education-europe Lead Section, § From the Renaissance to the Enlightenment]}} }}</ref> [[European colonization]] affected education in the Americas through [[Christian missionary]] initiatives.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=81–83}} | {{harvnb|Lightman|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yQj9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA316 316]}} }}</ref> In China, the state educational system was further expanded and focused more on the teachings of [[neo-Confucianism]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=116–117}} | {{harvnb|Elman|2016|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190622671.001.0001/acref-9780190622671-e-116 Civil Service Examinations]}} }}</ref> In the [[Islamic world]], the outreach of formal education increased and remained under the influence of religion.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|Stearns|2023|pp=116–117}}</ref> A key development in the early modern period was the invention and popularization of the [[printing press]] in the middle of the 15th century, which had a profound impact on general education. It significantly reduced the cost of producing books, which were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the dissemination of written documents, including new forms like [[newspaper]]s and [[pamphlet]]s. The increased availability of written media had a major influence on the general [[literacy]] of the population.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ornstein|Levine|Gutek|Vocke|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-nIcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 78]}} |2={{harvnb|Danesi|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GZOBAAAAQBAJ 169–170]}} |3={{harvnb|Poe|2011|pp=104–105, 112}} |4={{harvnb|Sampath|1981|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NfhwWGPoV3sC&pg=PA30 30]}} }}</ref>

These alterations paved the way for the advancement of public education during the 18th and 19th centuries.{{efn|For example, [[Commission of National Education|the world's first ministry of education]] was founded in 1773.<ref name="ND">{{cite book|author=Norman Davies|title=God's Playground: 1795 to the present|url=https://archive.org/details/godsplaygroundhi00norm_0 |url-access=registration|access-date=17 March 2013|date=28 February 2005|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-12819-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/godsplaygroundhi00norm_0/page/167 167]}}</ref><ref name="TT">{{cite book|author1=Ted Tapper|author2=David Palfreyman|title=Understanding Mass Higher Education: Comparative Perspectives On Access|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riv0UCM90AMC&pg=RA2-PA140|access-date=17 March 2013|year=2005|publisher=RoutledgeFalmer|isbn=978-0-415-35491-2|pages=140}}</ref>}} This era witnessed the establishment of publicly funded schools with the goal of providing education for all, in contrast to previous periods when formal education was primarily delivered by private schools, religious institutions, and individual tutors.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Scott|Vare|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=k1YAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT54 54–56]}} |2={{harvnb|Schuknecht|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TvwAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 40–41]}} |3={{harvnb|Bowen|Gelpi|Anweiler|2023|loc=Western Education in the 19th Century}}  |4={{harvnb|Gross|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uflADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–3, 9–11]}} |5={{harvnb|Archer|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jZxtAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA326 326]}} }}</ref> An exception to this trend was the [[Aztecs|Aztec]] civilization, where formal education was compulsory for youth across social classes as early as the 14th century.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Reagan|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bCGRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 108]}} |2={{harvnb|Murphy|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aX9hDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 80]}} |3={{harvnb|Kte'pi|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Yub3CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63 63]}} }}</ref> Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Beatty|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc-aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA436 436–437]}} |2={{harvnb|Beiter|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nE-wCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA609 609–610]}} |3={{harvnb|Beiter|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nE-wCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA95 95–97]}} }}</ref>

=== Contemporary era ===
The promotion of public education and [[universal access to education]] gained momentum in the 20th and 21st centuries, endorsed by intergovernmental organizations such as the UN. Key initiatives included the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]], the Education for All initiative, the [[Millennium Development Goals]], and the Sustainable Development Goals.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Urata|Kuroda|Tonegawa|2022|pp=40–41}} |2={{harvnb|Warren|2009|p=2}} |3={{harvnb|United Nations}} |4={{harvnb|Shelley|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gErEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}}  |5={{harvnb|Warren|Waltham|2009|p=42}}  }}</ref> These endeavors led to a consistent increase in all forms of education, particularly impacting primary education. In 1970, 28% of all primary-school-age children worldwide were not enrolled in school; by 2015, this figure had decreased to 9%.<ref>{{harvnb|Roser|Ortiz-Ospina|2013}}</ref>

The establishment of public education was accompanied by the introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as standardized tests to assess the progress of students. Contemporary examples are the [[Test of English as a Foreign Language]], which is a globally used test to assess language proficiency in [[non-native English speaker]]s, and the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]], which evaluates education systems across the world based on the performance of 15-year-old students in reading, mathematics, and science. Similar shifts impacted teachers, with the establishment of institutions and norms to  regulate and oversee teacher training, including certification mandates for teaching in public schools.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2007|pp=74–7, 81–5}} | {{harvnb|Murphy|Mufti|Kassem|2009|p=7}} | {{harvnb|Neem|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WZ47DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA213 213]}} | {{harvnb|Spring|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hRBqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT107 107]}} | {{harvnb|Pizmony-Levy|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8_nNDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 126]}} }}</ref>

Emerging educational technologies have significantly influenced modern education. The widespread availability of computers and the internet has notably expanded access to educational resources and facilitated new forms of learning, such as online education. This became particularly pertinent during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] when schools worldwide closed for prolonged periods, prompting many to adopt [[remote learning]] methods through [[video conferencing]] or pre-recorded [[video lesson]]s to sustain instruction.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Tosto|Alyahya|Espinoza|McCarthy|2023|pp=1–2}} |2={{harvnb|Haleem|Javaid|Qadri|Suman|2022|pp=275–277}} |3={{harvnb|Williams|Mehlinger|Powers|Baldwin|2003a|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/education/education-terms-and-concepts/educational-technology Educational Technology]}} |4={{harvnb|UN|2020|pp=[https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_brief_covid-19_and_education_august_2020.pdf 2–3]}} |5={{harvnb|Sampath|1981|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NfhwWGPoV3sC&pg=PA30 30]}} }}</ref> Additionally, contemporary education is impacted by the increasing globalization and internationalization of educational practices.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bartlett|Burton|2003|pp=239–241, 245–246}} |2={{harvnb|Ge (Rochelle) (葛贇)|2022|pp=229–231}} }}</ref>