Editing Deforestation (section)

== Impacts ==

=== On atmosphere and climate ===
{{further|Deforestation and climate change}}
[[File:Biophysical Effects on Global Temperature From Deforestation by 10° Latitude Band.jpg|thumb|Biophysical mechanisms by which forests influence climate.<ref name="10.3389/ffgc.2022.756115/full">{{cite journal|last1=Lawrence|first1=Deborah|last2=Coe|first2=Michael|last3=Walker|first3=Wayne|last4=Verchot|first4=Louis|last5=Vandecar|first5=Karen|date=2022|title=The Unseen Effects of Deforestation: Biophysical Effects on Climate|journal=Frontiers in Forests and Global Change|volume=5|doi=10.3389/ffgc.2022.756115|bibcode=2022FrFGC...5.6115L|issn=2624-893X|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]
[[File:Per capita CO2 emissions from deforestation for food production, OWID.svg|thumb|Per capita {{CO2}} emissions from deforestation for food production]]
[[File:Manantenina bushfire.jpg|thumb|Illegal "[[slash-and-burn]]" practice in [[Madagascar]], 2010]]
[[File:Spatial pattern of forest carbon loss across the tropics.webp|thumb|Mean annual carbon loss from tropical deforestation.<ref name="10.1038/s41893-022-00854-3">{{cite journal|last1=Feng|first1=Yu|last2=Zeng|first2=Zhenzhong|last3=Searchinger|first3=Timothy D.|last4=Ziegler|first4=Alan D.|last5=Wu|first5=Jie|last6=Wang|first6=Dashan|last7=He|first7=Xinyue|last8=Elsen|first8=Paul R.|last9=Ciais|first9=Philippe|last10=Xu|first10=Rongrong|last11=Guo|first11=Zhilin|last12=Peng|first12=Liqing|last13=Tao|first13=Yiheng|last14=Spracklen|first14=Dominick V.|last15=Holden|first15=Joseph|date=28 February 2022|title=Doubling of annual forest carbon loss over the tropics during the early twenty-first century|journal=Nature Sustainability|language=en|volume=5|issue=5|pages=444–451|doi=10.1038/s41893-022-00854-3|issn=2398-9629|s2cid=247160560|doi-access=free|last16=Liu|first16=Xiaoping|last17=Zheng|first17=Yi|last18=Xu|first18=Peng|last19=Chen|first19=Ji|last20=Jiang|first20=Xin|last21=Song|first21=Xiao-Peng|last22=Lakshmi|first22=Venkataraman|last23=Wood|first23=Eric F.|last24=Zheng|first24=Chunmiao|bibcode=2022NatSu...5..444F|hdl=2346/92751|hdl-access=free}}</ref>]]
Deforestation is a major contributor to [[climate change]].<ref>[http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000385/index.html Deforestation causes global warming] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805131750/http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000385/index.html|date=5 August 2009}}, [[FAO]]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Tropical Deforestation and Global Warming {{!}} Union of Concerned Scientists|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/tropical-deforestation-and-global-warming|access-date=2022-11-01|website=www.ucsusa.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ripple|first1=William J.|author-link1=William J. Ripple|last2=Wolf|first2=Christopher|last3= van Vuuren|first3=Detlef P.|last4=Gregg|first4= Jillian W.|last5=Lenzen|first5=Manfred|date=January 9, 2024|title=An environmental and socially just climate mitigation pathway for a planet in peril|journal=[[Environmental Research Letters]]|volume=19|issue=2|pages=021001|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ad059e|quote= ...land use change, particularly deforestation (driven by agricultural land expansion and wood demand), has also been one of the major contributors to climate change.|doi-access=free|bibcode=2024ERL....19b1001R}}</ref> It is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced [[greenhouse effect]]. Recent calculations suggest that {{CO2}} emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding [[peatland]] emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic {{CO2}} emissions, with a range from 6% to 17%.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Der Werf|first1=G. R.|last2=Morton|first2=D. C.|last3=Defries|first3=R. S.|last4=Olivier|first4=J. G. J.|last5=Kasibhatla|first5=P. S.|last6=Jackson|first6=R. B.|last7=Collatz|first7=G. J.|last8=Randerson|first8=J. T.|year=2009|title=CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from forest loss|journal=Nature Geoscience|volume=2|issue=11|pages=737–738|bibcode=2009NatGe...2..737V|doi=10.1038/ngeo671|s2cid=129188479}}</ref> A 2022 study shows annual carbon emissions from tropical deforestation have doubled during the last two decades and continue to increase: by 0.97 ± 0.16 PgC ([[petagram]]s of carbon, i.e. billions of tons) per year in 2001–2005 to 1.99 ± 0.13 PgC per year in 2015–2019.<ref>{{cite news|date=28 February 2022|title=Deforestation emissions far higher than previously thought, study finds|language=en|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/feb/28/deforestation-emissions-far-higher-than-previously-thought-study-finds-aoe|access-date=16 March 2022}}</ref><ref name="10.1038/s41893-022-00854-3" />

According to a review, north of 50°N, large scale deforestation leads to an overall net global cooling; but deforestation in the tropics leads to substantial warming: not just due to {{CO2}} impacts, but also due to other biophysical mechanisms (making carbon-centric metrics inadequate). Moreover, it suggests that standing tropical forests help cool the average global temperature by more than 1&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{cite news|date=24 March 2022|title=Forests help reduce global warming in more ways than one|work=Science News|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/forest-trees-reduce-global-warming-climate-cooling-carbon|access-date=19 April 2022}}</ref><ref name="10.3389/ffgc.2022.756115/full" /> According to a later study, deforestation in northern latitudes can also increase warming, while the conclusion about cooling from deforestation in these areas made by previous studies results from the failure of models to properly capture the effects of evapotranspiration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=M. Makarieva |first1=Anastassia |last2=V. Nefiodov |first2=Andrei |last3=Rammig |first3=Anja |last4=Donato Nobre |first4=Antonio |title=Re-appraisal of the global climatic role of natural forests for improved climate projections and policies |journal=Frontiers in Forests and Global Change |date=20 July 2023 |volume=6 |doi=10.3389/ffgc.2023.1150191 |doi-access=free |arxiv=2301.09998 |bibcode=2023FrFGC...650191M }}</ref> 

The incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of {{CO2}}, which contributes to global warming.<ref name="Fearnidel">{{cite journal|last1=Fearnside|first1=Philip M.|last2=Laurance|first2=William F.|year=2004|title=Tropical Deforestation and Greenhouse-Gas Emissions|journal=Ecological Applications|volume=14|issue=4|pages=982|doi=10.1890/03-5225|bibcode=2004EcoAp..14..982F}}</ref> Scientists also state that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon each year into the atmosphere.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal|last1=Defries|first1=Ruth|last2=Achard|first2=Frédéric|last3=Brown|first3=Sandra|last4=Herold|first4=Martin|last5=Murdiyarso|first5=Daniel|last6=Schlamadinger|first6=Bernhard|last7=De Souza|first7=Carlos|year=2007|title=Earth observations for estimating greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation in developing countries|url=http://www.gofc-gold.uni-jena.de/documents/other/EO_for_GHG_emissions.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Environmental Science Policy|volume=10|issue=4|pages=385–394|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2007.01.010|bibcode=2007ESPol..10..385D|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118225748/http://www.gofc-gold.uni-jena.de/documents/other/EO_for_GHG_emissions.pdf|archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref>

==== Carbon sink or source ====
{{See also|Carbon sequestration|Carbon sink|Biomass (energy)#Climate impacts}}
A study suggests logged and structurally degraded tropical forests are [[Carbon cycle|carbon sources]] for at least a decade – even when recovering{{clarify|date=February 2023|reason=does this include reforestation like the news article suggests?}} – due to larger carbon losses [[soil carbon|from soil organic matter]] and deadwood, indicating that the tropical forest [[carbon sink]] (at least in South Asia) "may be much smaller than previously estimated", <!--with potential implications on offsetting, the importance of deforestation prevention, and contemporary e.g. logging-and-reforestation practices-->contradicting that "recovering logged and degraded tropical forests are net carbon sinks".<!--https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000142385381/nachwachsender-regenwald-gibt-mehr-co2-frei-als-er-bindet--><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mills|first1=Maria B.|last2=Malhi|first2=Yadvinder|last3=Ewers|first3=Robert M.|last4=Kho|first4=Lip Khoon|last5=Teh|first5=Yit Arn|last6=Both|first6=Sabine|last7=Burslem|first7=David F. R. P.|last8=Majalap|first8=Noreen|last9=Nilus|first9=Reuben|last10=Huaraca Huasco|first10=Walter|last11=Cruz|first11=Rudi|last12=Pillco|first12=Milenka M.|last13=Turner|first13=Edgar C.|last14=Reynolds|first14=Glen|last15=Riutta|first15=Terhi|date=17 January 2023|title=Tropical forests post-logging are a persistent net carbon source to the atmosphere|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=120|issue=3|pages=e2214462120|bibcode=2023PNAS..12014462M|doi=10.1073/pnas.2214462120|issn=0027-8424|pmc=9934015|pmid=36623189|doi-access=free}}</ref>[[File:SouthEast Asia fires Oct 2006.jpg|thumb|[[Deforestation in Borneo|Fires on Borneo and Sumatra]], 2006. People use [[slash-and-burn]] deforestation to clear land for agriculture.]]

{{excerpt|Carbon sequestration#Forestry}}

=== On the environment ===
According to a 2020 study, if deforestation continues at current rates it can trigger a total or almost total [[Human extinction|extinction of humanity]] in the next 20 to 40 years. They conclude that "from a statistical point of view... the probability that our civilisation survives itself is less than 10% in the most optimistic scenario." To avoid this collapse, humanity should pass from a civilization dominated by the economy to "cultural society" that "privileges the interest of the ecosystem above the individual interest of its components, but eventually in accordance with the overall communal interest."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nafeez|first1=Ahmed|date=28 July 2020|title=Theoretical Physicists Say 90% Chance of Societal Collapse Within Several Decades|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/theoretical-physicists-say-90-chance-of-societal-collapse-within-several-decades/|access-date=9 August 2020|website=Vice}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bologna|first1=M.|last2=Aquino|first2=G.|date=2020|title=Deforestation and world population sustainability: a quantitative analysis|url=|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=10|issue=7631|page=7631|arxiv=2006.12202|bibcode=2020NatSR..10.7631B|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-63657-6|pmc=7203172|pmid=32376879}}</ref>

==== Changes to the water cycle ====
The [[water cycle]] is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract [[groundwater]] through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much [[dry climate|drier climate]]. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. The dry soil leads to lower water intake for the trees to extract.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrm.org.uy/deforestation/UNreport.html|title=Underlying Causes of Deforestation|work=UN Secretary-General’s Report|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010411092448/http://wrm.org.uy/deforestation/UNreport.html|archive-date=11 April 2001}}</ref> Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that [[Soil erosion|erosion]], flooding and [[landslide]]s ensue.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://people.uwec.edu/jolhm/eh2/rogge/index.htm|author=Rogge, Daniel|work=University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire|title=Deforestation and Landslides in Southwestern Washington}}</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/413717.stm China's floods: Is deforestation to blame?] BBC News. 6 August 1999.</ref>

Shrinking [[forest cover]] lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and [[Transpiration|transpire]] precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. Forests return most of the water that falls as precipitation to the atmosphere by transpiration. In contrast, when an area is deforested, almost all precipitation is lost as run-off.<ref>Raven, P. H. and Berg, L. R. (2006) ''Environment'', 5th ed, John Wiley & Sons. p. 406. {{ISBN|0471704385}}.</ref> That quicker transport of surface water can translate into [[flash flood]]ing and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased [[evapotranspiration]], which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans. According to one study, in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Economic Costs of China's Environmental Degradation: Project on Environmental Scarcities, State Capacity, and Civil Violence, a Joint Project of the University of Toronto and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences|chapter-url = http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/state/chinaeco/forest.htm|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091230071928/http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/state/chinaeco/forest.htm|url-status = dead|archive-date = 30 December 2009|publisher = Committee on Internat. Security Studies, American Acad. of Arts and Sciences|date = 1 January 1998|first = Wang|last = Hongchang|chapter = Deforestation and Desiccation in China A Preliminary Study|editor-last = Schwartz|editor-first = Jonathan Matthew}}</ref>

[[File:Madagascar highland plateau.jpg|thumb|Deforestation of the [[Central Highlands (Madagascar)|Highland Plateau]] in Madagascar has led to extensive [[siltation]] and unstable flows of western rivers.]]
Trees, and plants in general, affect the [[water cycle]] significantly:<ref name="Mishra-2010" />
* their canopies intercept a proportion of [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]], which is then evaporated back to the atmosphere ([[Interception (water)|canopy interception]]);
* their litter, stems and trunks slow down [[surface runoff]];
* their roots create [[macropore]]s – large conduits – in the soil that increase [[infiltration (hydrology)|infiltration]] of water;
* they contribute to terrestrial evaporation and reduce [[Water content|soil moisture]] via [[transpiration]];
* their [[plant litter|litter]] and other organic residue change soil properties that affect the capacity of soil to store water.
* their leaves control the [[humidity]] of the atmosphere by [[transpiration|transpiring]]. 99% of the water absorbed by the roots moves up to the leaves and is transpired.<ref>[http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/ageng/irrigate/eb66w.htm "Soil, Water and Plant Characteristics Important to Irrigation".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121125074838/http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/ageng/irrigate/eb66w.htm |date=25 November 2012 }} North Dakota State University.</ref>
As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem functions or human services. Deforestation on lowland plains moves cloud formation and rainfall to higher elevations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ray|first1=Deepak K.|last2=Nair|first2=Udaysankar S.|last3=Lawton|first3=Robert O.|last4=Welch|first4=Ronald M.|last5=Pielke|first5=Roger A.|title=Impact of land use on Costa Rican tropical montane cloud forests: Sensitivity of orographic cloud formation to deforestation in the plains|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|date=2006|volume=111|issue=D2|pages=D02108|doi=10.1029/2005JD006096|bibcode=2006JGRD..111.2108R|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The forest may have little impact on flooding in the case of large rainfall events, which overwhelm the storage capacity of forest soil if the soils are at or close to saturation.

[[Tropical rainforest]]s produce about 30% of Earth's [[fresh water]].<ref name="The Times">{{Cite news|date=8 October 2006|title=How can you save the rain forest. 8 October 2006. Frank Field|work=The Times|location=London|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/article664544.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517091952/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/article664544.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 May 2008|access-date=1 April 2010}}</ref>

Deforestation disrupts normal weather patterns creating hotter and drier weather thus increasing drought, desertification, crop failures, melting of the polar ice caps, [[coastal flooding]] and displacement of major vegetation regimes.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Deforestation as a major threat|url=https://www.daily-sun.com/printversion/details/465873/Deforestation-as-a-major-threat|access-date=2022-02-26|work=Daily Sun|type=Opinion|language=en}}</ref>

==== Soil erosion ====
[[File:Erp - 20111006 (6).jpg|thumb|Deforestation in [[France]].]]
Due to surface [[plant litter]], forests that are undisturbed have a minimal rate of [[erosion]]. The rate of erosion occurs from deforestation, because it decreases the amount of litter cover, which provides protection from [[surface runoff]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Soil Erosion and Conservation|last=Morgan|first=R.P.C|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2009|isbn=9781405144674|pages=343}}</ref> The rate of erosion is around 2 metric tons per square kilometre.<ref name="Homestead">{{Cite book|title=21st Century Homestead: Sustainable Agriculture III: Agricultural Practices|last=Henkel|first=Marlon|date=22 February 2015|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781312939752|pages=110}}{{self-published source|date=February 2020}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=February 2020}} This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the [[road building|development of]] ([[forest road|forest]]) [[road]]s and the use of mechanized equipment.<ref name="IPCC_AR6" />

Deforestation in China's Loess Plateau many years ago has led to soil erosion; this erosion has led to valleys opening up. The increase of soil in the runoff causes the Yellow River to flood and makes it yellow-colored.<ref name="Homestead" />

Greater erosion is not always a consequence of deforestation, as observed in the southwestern regions of the US. In these areas, the loss of grass due to the presence of trees and other shrubbery leads to more erosion than when trees are removed.<ref name="Homestead" />

Soils are reinforced by the presence of trees, which secure the soil by binding their roots to soil bedrock. Due to deforestation, the removal of trees causes sloped lands to be more susceptible to [[Landslide|landslides.]]<ref name="Mishra-2010">{{Cite book|title=Fundamental Concept in Environmental Studies|last=Mishra|first=D.D.|publisher=S. Chand Publishing|year=2010|isbn=978-8121929370|pages=14–15}}</ref>

==== Other changes to the soil ====
Clearing forests changes the environment of the [[Soil biology|microbial communities within the soil]], and causes a [[loss of biodiversity]] in regards to the microbes since biodiversity is actually highly dependent on [[soil texture]].<ref name="YaleNews-2014">{{Cite news|date=2014-04-01|title=Deforestation of sandy soils a greater threat to climate change|language=en|work=YaleNews|url=https://news.yale.edu/2014/04/01/deforestation-sandy-soils-greater-threat-climate-change|access-date=2018-02-09}}</ref> Although the effect of deforestation has much more profound consequences on sandier soils compared to clay-like soils, the disruptions caused by deforestation ultimately reduces properties of soil such as [[hydraulic conductivity]] and water storage, thus reducing the efficiency of water and heat absorption.<ref name="YaleNews-2014" /><ref name="Shukla-1990">{{Cite journal|last1=Shukla|first1=J.|last2=Nobre|first2=C.|last3=Sellers|first3=P.|date=1990-03-16|title=Amazon Deforestation and Climate Change|journal=Science|language=en|volume=247|issue=4948|pages=1322–1325|bibcode=1990Sci...247.1322S|doi=10.1126/science.247.4948.1322|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17843795|s2cid=8361418|hdl-access=free|hdl=10535/2838}}</ref> In a simulation of the deforestation process in the Amazon, researchers found that surface and soil temperatures increased by 1 to 3 degrees Celsius demonstrating the loss of the soil's ability to absorb radiation and moisture.<ref name="Shukla-1990" /> Furthermore, soils that are rich in organic decay matter are more susceptible to fire, especially during long droughts.<ref name="YaleNews-2014" />

Changes in soil properties could turn the soil itself into a [[carbon source]] rather than a [[carbon sink]].<ref name="Rebecca-2007">{{Cite web|last=Rebecca|first=Lindsey|date=2007-03-30|title=Tropical Deforestation: Feature Articles|url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Deforestation/deforestation_update2.php|access-date=2018-02-09|website=earthobservatory.nasa.gov|language=en}}</ref>

==== Biodiversity loss ====
{{Further|Biodiversity loss}}
Deforestation on a human scale results in decline in [[biodiversity]],<ref>Nilsson, Sten (March 2001). [http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/nilsson.html Do We Have Enough Forests?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607205907/http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/nilsson.html|date=7 June 2019}}, American Institute of Biological Sciences.</ref> and on a natural global scale is known to cause the extinction of many species.<ref name="Benton">{{cite journal|author=Sahney, S.|author2=Benton, M.J.|author3=Falcon-Lang, H.J.|name-list-style=amp|year=2010|title=Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica|journal=Geology|volume=38|issue=12|pages=1079–1082|bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S|doi=10.1130/G31182.1}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Lewis|first=Sophie|date=September 9, 2020|title=Animal populations worldwide have declined by almost 70% in just 50 years, new report says|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/biodiversity-endangered-species-animal-population-decline-world-wildlife-fund-report-2020-09-09/|work=[[CBS News]]|access-date=September 10, 2020|quote="The report points to land-use change — in particular, the destruction of habitats like rainforests for farming — as the key driver for loss of biodiversity, accounting for more than half of the loss in Europe, Central Asia, North America, Latin America and the Caribbean."}}</ref> The removal or destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced [[biodiversity]].<ref name="r1" /> Forests support biodiversity, providing habitat for [[wildlife]];<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070808132022.htm Rainforest Biodiversity Shows Differing Patterns], ScienceDaily, 14 August 2007.</ref> moreover, forests foster [[medicinal plants|medicinal conservation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bmbf.de/en/12484.php|work=Research for Biodiversity Editorial Office|title=Medicine from the rainforest|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206015033/http://www.bmbf.de/en/12484.php|archive-date=6 December 2008}}</ref> With forest [[biotope]]s being irreplaceable source of new drugs (such as [[Paclitaxel|taxol]]), deforestation can destroy [[Genetics|genetic]] variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably.<ref>[http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Single-largest-biodiversity-survey-says-primary-rainforest-is-irreplaceable-1218-1/ Single-largest biodiversity survey says primary rainforest is irreplaceable] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814233654/http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Single-largest-biodiversity-survey-says-primary-rainforest-is-irreplaceable-1218-1/|date=14 August 2009}}, Bio-Medicine, 14 November 2007.</ref>
[[File:Illegal export of rosewood 001.jpg|thumb|[[Illegal logging in Madagascar]]. In 2009, the vast majority of the illegally obtained [[rosewood]] was exported to [[China]].]]
Since the tropical rainforests are the most diverse [[ecosystem]]s on Earth<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090302154517/http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/ecosystems/ecosystemsrainforestrev1.shtml Tropical rainforests – The tropical rainforest], BBC</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20000302033338/http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/trforest.htm Tropical Rain Forest]. thinkquest.org</ref> and about 80% of the world's known [[biodiversity]] can be found in tropical rainforests,<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-biodiversity-idUSMAN18800220080620 U.N. calls on Asian nations to end deforestation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924134044/http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/06/20/us-philippines-biodiversity-idUSMAN18800220080620|date=24 September 2015}}, Reuters, 20 June 2008.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rain-tree.com/facts.htm|title=Facts and information on the Amazon Rainforest|website=www.rain-tree.com}}</ref> removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a [[Soil degradation|degraded]]<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/ecosystems/ecosystemsrainforestrev4.shtml Tropical rainforests – Rainforest water and nutrient cycles] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213160024/http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/ecosystems/ecosystemsrainforestrev4.shtml|date=13 February 2009}}, BBC</ref> environment with reduced biodiversity.<ref name="Benton" /><ref>Butler, Rhett A. (2 July 2007) [http://news.mongabay.com/2007/0702-gardner.html Primary rainforest richer in species than plantations, secondary forests], mongabay.com,</ref> Road construction and development of adjacent land, which greatly reduces the area of intact wilderness and causes soil erosion, is a major contributing factor to the loss of biodiversity in tropical regions.<ref name="IPCC_AR6">{{cite report|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter07.pdf|chapter=Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Uses (AFOLU)|author1=Nabuurs, G-J.|author2=R. Mrabet|author3=A. Abu Hatab|author4=M. Bustamante|author5= H. Clark|author6=P. Havlík|author7=J. House|author8=C. Mbow|author9=K.N. Ninan|author10=A. Popp|author11=S. Roe|author12=B. Sohngen|author13=S. Towprayoon|title= Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|date=2022|publisher= Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781009157926.009|pages=768–769|isbn=9781009157926}}</ref> A study in [[Rondônia]], Brazil, has shown that deforestation also removes the microbial community which is involved in the recycling of nutrients, the production of clean water and the removal of pollutants.<ref name="ro">{{cite web|last=Flowers|first=April|title=Deforestation in the Amazon Affects Microbial Life As Well As Ecosystems|url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1112753888/amazon-deforestation-microbial-communities-122512/|work=Science News|publisher=Redorbit.com|access-date=12 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502223155/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1112753888/amazon-deforestation-microbial-communities-122512/|archive-date=2 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

It has been estimated that 137 plant, animal and insect species go extinct every day due to rainforest deforestation, which equates to 50,000 species a year.<ref name="rain-tree.com">[http://www.rain-tree.com/facts.htm Rainforest Facts]. Rain-tree.com (20 March 2010). Retrieved 29 August 2010.</ref> Others state that tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing [[Holocene mass extinction]].<ref>Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin, 1996, ''The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind'', Anchor, {{ISBN|0-385-46809-1}}.</ref><ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/the-great-rainforest-tragedy-542135.html The great rainforest tragedy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912071556/http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/the-great-rainforest-tragedy-542135.html|date=12 September 2011}}, The Independent, 28 June 2003.</ref> The known extinction rates from deforestation rates are very low, approximately one species per year from mammals and birds, which extrapolates to approximately 23,000 species per year for all species. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and [[Flora|plant species]] in [[Southeast Asia]] could be wiped out in the 21st century.<ref>[https://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/endangered-species/dn3973 Biodiversity wipeout facing South East Asia], New Scientist, 23 July 2003.</ref> Such predictions were called into question by 1995 data that show that within regions of Southeast Asia much of the original forest has been converted to monospecific plantations, but that potentially endangered species are few and tree flora remains widespread and stable.<ref name="ReferenceB" />
[[File:Rain forest location map.png|thumb|300px|World map of [[Rainforest|rainforests]]{{legend|#005c00|[[Tropical rainforest]]}}{{legend|#047f05|[[Temperate rainforest|Temperate/subtropical rainforest]]}}]]
Scientific understanding of the process of extinction is insufficient to accurately make predictions about the impact of deforestation on biodiversity.<ref>{{cite journal|year = 1995|title = The future of biodiversity|journal = Science|volume = 269|issue = 5222|pages = 347–50|doi = 10.1126/science.269.5222.347|pmid=17841251|last1 = Pimm|first1 = S. L.|last2 = Russell|first2 = G. J.|last3 = Gittleman|first3 = J. L.|last4 = Brooks|first4 = T. M.|bibcode = 1995Sci...269..347P|s2cid = 35154695}}</ref> Most predictions of forestry related biodiversity loss are based on species-area models, with an underlying assumption that as the forest declines species diversity will decline similarly.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|author1=Whitmore, Timothy Charles|author2=Sayer, Jeffrey|author3=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. General Assembly|author4=IUCN Forest Conservation Programme|title=Tropical deforestation and species extinction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Et4opq8dn4MC|date=15 February 1992|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-412-45520-9}}</ref> However, many such models have been proven to be wrong and [[loss of habitat]] does not necessarily lead to large scale loss of species.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Species-area models are known to overpredict the number of species known to be threatened in areas where actual deforestation is ongoing, and greatly overpredict the number of threatened species that are widespread.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.269.5222.347|title=The Future of Biodiversity|year=1995|last1=Pimm|first1=S. L.|last2=Russell|first2=G. J.|last3=Gittleman|first3=J. L.|last4=Brooks|first4=T. M.|journal=Science|volume=269|issue=5222|pages=347–350|pmid=17841251|bibcode=1995Sci...269..347P|s2cid=35154695}}</ref>

In 2012, a study of the Brazilian Amazon predicts that despite a lack of extinctions thus far, up to 90 percent of predicted extinctions will finally occur in the next 40 years.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sohn|first=Emily|title=More extinctions expected in Amazon|work=Discovery|url=http://news.discovery.com/earth/amazon-extinctions-to-come-120712.html|date=12 July 2012|access-date=13 July 2012|archive-date=7 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107175209/http://news.discovery.com/earth/amazon-extinctions-to-come-120712.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Oxygen-supply misconception ====
Rainforests are widely believed by lay persons to contribute a significant amount of the world's oxygen,<ref name="The Times" /> although it is now accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net [[oxygen]] to the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] and deforestation has only a minor effect on atmospheric oxygen levels.<ref>Broecker, Wallace S. (2006). [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/21stC/issue-2.1/broecker.htm "Breathing easy: Et tu, O<sub>2</sub>".] Columbia University</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moran|first1=Emilio F.|year=1993|title=Deforestation and land use in the Brazilian Amazon|journal=Human Ecology|volume=21|issue=1 |pages=1–21|doi=10.1007/BF00890069|bibcode=1993HumEc..21....1M |s2cid=153481315}}</ref> In fact about 50 percent of oxygen on Earth is produced by algae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chapman|first=Russell Leonard|date=2013-01-01|title=Algae: the world's most important "plants"—an introduction|journal=Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=5–12|doi=10.1007/s11027-010-9255-9|bibcode=2013MASGC..18....5C|issn=1573-1596|s2cid=85214078|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== On human health ===
Deforestation reduces safe working hours for millions of people in the tropics, especially for those performing heavy labour outdoors. Continued global heating and forest loss is expected to amplify these impacts, reducing work hours for vulnerable groups even more.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quaglia |first=Sofia |date=2021-12-17 |title=Deforestation making outdoor work unsafe for millions, says study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/17/deforestation-making-outdoor-work-unsafe-for-millions-says-study |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217163119/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/17/deforestation-making-outdoor-work-unsafe-for-millions-says-study |archive-date=17 December 2021 |access-date=2021-12-18 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> A study conducted from 2002 to 2018 also determined that the increase in temperature as a result of climate change, and the lack of shade due to deforestation, has increased the [[mortality rate]] of workers in [[Indonesia]].<ref name="Wolff-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Wolff |first1=Nicholas H. |last2=Zeppetello |first2=Lucas R. Vargas |last3=Parsons |first3=Luke A. |last4=Aggraeni |first4=Ike |last5=Battisti |first5=David S. |last6=Ebi |first6=Kristie L. |last7=Game |first7=Edward T. |last8=Kroeger |first8=Timm |last9=Masuda |first9=Yuta J. |last10=Spector |first10=June T. |date=2021-12-01 |title=The effect of deforestation and climate change on all-cause mortality and unsafe work conditions due to heat exposure in Berau, Indonesia: a modelling study |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |language=English |volume=5 |issue=12 |pages=e882–e892 |doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00279-5 |issn=2542-5196 |pmid=34774222 |s2cid=244068407 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021LanPH...5.e882W }}</ref>

==== Infectious diseases ====
Deforestation eliminates a great number of species of plants and animals which also often results in exposure of people to [[Zoonosis|zoonotic diseases]].<ref name="FAO & UNEP-2020" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration|url=https://www.decadeonrestoration.org/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9456en|title=Global emergence of infectious diseases: links with wild meat consumption, ecosystem disruption, habitat degradation and biodiversity loss|publisher=FAO|year=2020|isbn=978-92-5-132818-7|location=Rome|doi=10.4060/ca9456en|s2cid=240645073}}</ref> Forest-associated diseases include malaria, Chagas disease (also known as American trypanosomiasis), African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), leishmaniasis, Lyme disease, HIV and Ebola.<ref name="FAO & UNEP-2020" /> The majority of new infectious diseases affecting humans, including the [[SARS-CoV-2|SARS-CoV-2 virus]] that caused the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], are zoonotic and their emergence may be linked to habitat loss due to forest area change and the expansion of human populations into forest areas, which both increase human exposure to wildlife.<ref name="FAO & UNEP-2020" />

Deforestation has been coupled with an increase in the occurrence of disease outbreaks. In [[Malaysia]], thousands of acres of forest have been cleared for pig farms. This has resulted in an increase in the spread of the [[Nipah virus]].<ref>[http://thebulletin.org/deforestation-and-emerging-diseases Deforestation and emerging diseases|Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]. Thebulletin.org (15 February 2011). Retrieved 13 November 2016.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lam|first1=Sai Kit|last2=Chua|first2=Kaw Bing|year=2002|title=Nipah Virus Encephalitis Outbreak in Malaysia|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=34|pages=S48–51|doi=10.1086/338818|pmid=11938496|doi-access=free}}</ref> In [[Kenya]], deforestation has led to an increase in malaria cases which is now the leading cause of morbidity and mortality the country.<ref>[http://www.african-politics.com/tag/environmental-impact-of-deforestation-in-kenya/ African Politics Portal|Tag Archive|Environmental impact of deforestation in Kenya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413022408/http://www.african-politics.com/tag/environmental-impact-of-deforestation-in-kenya/|date=13 April 2016}}. African-politics.com (28 May 2009). Retrieved 13 November 2016.</ref><ref>[http://kff.org/news-summary/2014-kenya-economic-survey-marks-malaria-as-countrys-leading-cause-of-death/ 2014 Kenya Economic Survey Marks Malaria As Country’s Leading Cause Of Death|The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation]. Kff.org (1 May 2014). Retrieved 13 November 2016.</ref> A 2017 study found that deforestation substantially increased the incidence of malaria in Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Julia|first1=Berazneva|last2=Byker|first2=Tanya S.|date=1 May 2017|title=Does Forest Loss Increase Human Disease? Evidence from Nigeria|journal=American Economic Review|language=en|volume=107|issue=5|pages=516–521|doi=10.1257/aer.p20171132|pmid=29557569|issn=0002-8282}}</ref>

Another pathway through which deforestation affects disease is the relocation and dispersion of disease-carrying hosts. This disease emergence pathway can be called "[[Colonisation (biology)|range expansion]]", whereby the host's range (and thereby the range of pathogens) expands to new geographic areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Range Expansion and Population Dynamics of an Invasive Species: The Eurasian Collared-Dove (''Streptopelia decaocto'')|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9|issue=10|pages=e111510|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0111510|pmid=25354270|year=2014|last1=Scheidt|first1=Spencer N.|last2=Hurlbert|first2=Allen H.|pmc=4213033|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9k1510S|doi-access=free}}</ref> Through deforestation, hosts and reservoir species are forced into neighboring habitats. Accompanying the reservoir species are pathogens that have the ability to find new hosts in previously unexposed regions. As these pathogens and species come into closer contact with humans, they are infected both directly and indirectly. Another example of range expansion due to deforestation and other [[Anthropogenic hazard|anthropogenic]] habitat impacts includes the [[Capybara]] rodent in [[Paraguay]].<ref>[http://news.mongabay.com/2010/12/deforestation-sparks-giant-rodent-invasions/ Deforestation sparks giant rodent invasions]. News.mongabay.com (15 December 2010). Retrieved 13 November 2016.</ref>

According to the [[World Economic Forum]], 31% of [[Emerging infectious disease|emerging diseases]] are linked to deforestation.<ref>{{cite book|title=Outbreak Readiness and Business Impact Protecting Lives and Livelihoods across the Global Economy|date=January 2019|publisher=World Economic Forum, Harvard Global Health Institute|page=7|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF%20HGHI_Outbreak_Readiness_Business_Impact.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121175911/http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF%20HGHI_Outbreak_Readiness_Business_Impact.pdf|archive-date=2019-01-21|url-status=live|access-date=12 March 2020}}</ref> A publication by the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] in 2016 found that deforestation, [[climate change]], and [[livestock]] agriculture are among the main causes that increase the risk of [[Zoonosis|zoonotic diseases]], that is diseases that pass from animals to humans.<ref name="UNEP-2016">{{cite book|title=UNEP Frontiers 2016 Report: Emerging Issues of Environmental Concern|date=2016|publisher=United Nations Environment Programme|location=Nairoby|isbn=978-92-807-3553-6|pages=18–32|url=https://environmentlive.unep.org/media/docs/assessments/UNEP_Frontiers_2016_report_emerging_issues_of_environmental_concern.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224140345/http://environmentlive.unep.org/media/docs/assessments/UNEP_Frontiers_2016_report_emerging_issues_of_environmental_concern.pdf|archive-date=2017-02-24|url-status=live|access-date=1 May 2020}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>

===== COVID-19 pandemic =====
{{See also|COVID-19 pandemic|Pandemic prevention#Environmental policy and economics}}

Scientists have linked the [[Coronavirus disease 2019|Coronavirus pandemic]] to the destruction of nature, especially to deforestation, [[habitat loss]] in general and [[wildlife trade]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Carrington|first1=Damian|title=Pandemics result from destruction of nature, say UN and WHO|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/17/pandemics-destruction-nature-un-who-legislation-trade-green-recovery|access-date=18 June 2020|agency=The Guardian|date=17 June 2020}}</ref> According to the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) the [[Coronavirus disease 2019]] is zoonotic, e.g., the virus passed from animals to humans. UNEP concludes that: "The most fundamental way to protect ourselves from zoonotic diseases is to prevent destruction of nature. Where ecosystems are healthy and biodiverse, they are resilient, adaptable and help to regulate diseases.<ref>{{cite web|title=Science points to causes of COVID-19|url=https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/science-points-causes-covid-19|website=United Nations Environmental Programm|date=22 May 2020|publisher=United Nations|access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref>

=== On the economy and agriculture ===
[[File:Malayasia iko 2002169.jpg|thumb|right|A satellite image showing [[Social and environmental impact of palm oil|deforestation for a palm oil plantation]] in Malaysia]]{{Update section|reason=cites are very old|date=June 2020}}

Economic losses due to [[deforestation in Brazil]] could reach around 317 billion dollars per year, approximately 7 times higher in comparison to the cost of all commodities produced through deforestation.<ref name="TheWorldBank">{{cite web|title=World Bank: Brazil faces $317 billion in annual losses to Amazon deforestation|url=https://8point9.com/world-bank-brazil-faces-317-billion-in-annual-losses-to-amazon-deforestation#:~:text=BRAZIL%20could%20face%20losses%20of,commodities%20taken%20from%20the%20rainforests.|access-date=30 May 2023|website=8.9ha.|date=24 May 2023|publisher=World Bank}}</ref>

The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or [[over-exploitation]] of wood products, typically leads to a loss of long-term income and long-term biological productivity. [[West Africa]], [[Madagascar]], [[Southeast Asia]] and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to national economies annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0905.htm|work=rainforests.mongabay.com|title=Destruction of Renewable Resources}}</ref>

The resilience of human food systems and their capacity to adapt to future change is linked to biodiversity – including dryland-adapted shrub and tree species that help combat desertification, forest-dwelling insects, bats and bird species that pollinate crops, trees with extensive root systems in [[mountain ecosystems]] that prevent [[soil erosion]], and mangrove species that provide resilience against flooding in coastal areas.<ref name="FAO & UNEP-2020" /> With climate change exacerbating the risks to food systems, the role of forests in capturing and storing carbon and mitigating climate change is important for the agricultural sector.<ref name="FAO & UNEP-2020" />

[[File:Haiti deforestation.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of [[Haiti]]'s border with the [[Dominican Republic]] (right) shows the amount of [[deforestation in Haiti|deforestation on the Haitian side]]]]

[[File:Deforestation around Pakke Tiger Reserve, India.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|Deforestation around Pakke Tiger Reserve, India]]