Editing Calabria (section)

=== Carbonari uprisings to the Expedition of the Thousand ===
The return of the Bourbons to the throne brought a period of absolute monarchical restoration, but it did not undermine the administrative reforms introduced by the French rulers, as these could be functional for a tighter control of the central government over the peripheral territories. On the contrary, they were increased and strengthened, as in the case of Calabria, which by royal decree of May 1, 1816, had two new administrative divisions: the province of {{ILL|Calabria Ulteriore Prima|it}}, with its capital in Reggio, and that of {{ILL|Calabria Ulteriore Seconda|it}}, with its headquarters in Catanzaro.<ref name=":38" /><ref name=":63" />

However, the monarchical absolutism of the sovereign generated a clear liberal opposition, formed by those bourgeois cadres of leaders who had prospered during French rule and who now saw themselves outclassed again by aristocratic and clerical exponents for reasons of social class. They were mainly army officers, but also bourgeois, intellectuals and civil servants, many of them adherents of the [[Carbonari]] sect, which was founded with the specific purpose of creating an Italy independent of foreign domination and forcing the various Italian sovereigns to grant a liberal constitution. Thus, on July 1, 1820, after the news of the granting in Spain of the [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|Constitution of Cadiz]], many Carbonari officers, including cavalry second lieutenants {{ILL|Giuseppe Silvati|it}} and {{Ill|Michele Morelli|it}} (the latter from Calabria), marched with their regiments from [[Nola]] to force Ferdinand I to grant the Constitution, gathering numerous supporters along the road to Naples. The ruler had to give in to popular pressure and grant the constitutional charter, but the liberal experiment was short-lived, as Austrian troops, secretly called to the rescue by Ferdinand himself, crushed the Neapolitan Carbonari uprisings. The main leaders of the revolutionary uprising, Morelli and Silvati, were sentenced to death and hanged in September 1822.<ref name=":38" /><ref name=":63" />

After the death of Ferdinand I in 1825 and the brief reign of his son [[Francis I of the Two Sicilies|Francis I]], the 20-year-old [[Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand II]], son of Francis I, ascended the throne in 1830; after granting some partial economic and administrative reforms (cutting the civil list, abolishing some unnecessary court expenses, reducing ministers' salaries, recalling former Murattian officers into the army, reorganizing the army), the new ruler, however, did not grant those political and institutional reforms so eagerly awaited by the liberals, instead propping up the police regime established by his predecessors and crushing any hint of political revolt. However, unlike his father and grandfather, Ferdinand II was aware of the conditions in the outlying provinces of his kingdom and therefore decided to make several official trips to visit them: the first of these began on April 7, 1833, when the king, departing from Naples, arrived in Calabria, after passing through [[Sala Consilina]] and [[Lagonegro]]. On April 11 he was in Castrovillari, passed quickly through Cosenza and Monteleone, visited [[Tropea]], [[Nicotera]], [[Bagnara Calabra|Bagnara]] and Reggio Calabria, from where he embarked for Messina. After a few days King Ferdinand II returned to Bagnara and then went to visit the Mongiana ironworks; on April 23 he stopped in Catanzaro, then traveled along the Ionian coast and went to Taranto and [[Lecce]], traveled through Capitanata, the {{ILL|Principato Ultra|it}} and finally returned to the capital on May 6. During his visit the Bourbon ruler did many useful things: he granted pardons, decreed bridges and roads, corrected some arbitrary actions of public administrators and bestowed substantial relief to earthquake victims who had lost everything in the March 8, 1832 earthquake that occurred in the Crati and Coraci basin.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Visalli |first=Vittorio |title=I Calabresi nel Risorgimento italiano. Storia documentata delle rivoluzioni calabresi dal 1799 al 1862 |publisher=Walter Brenner Editore |year=1989 |volume=II |language=it |trans-title=Calabrians in the Italian Risorgimento. Documented history of Calabrian revolutions from 1799 to 1862.}}</ref>

In the years that followed, before the outbreak of the [[revolutions of 1848]], Calabria was the scene of numerous insurrectional uprisings of the liberal and [[Giuseppe Mazzini|Mazzinian]] kind, all of which were suppressed by the Bourbon regime. The protagonists were both patriots from other parts of Italy, such as the Venetian [[Bandiera brothers]], who had arrived in 1844 to lend support to the aborted Cosenza revolt, only to be betrayed by one of their comrades and captured by the Bourbon gendarmerie, which shot them in August of that year in [[Rovito]] after a summary trial, and Calabrians such as the {{ILL|Five Martyrs of Gerace|it|Rivolta di Gerace}} ({{ILL|Michele Bello|it}}, {{ILL|Pietro Mazzoni|it}}, {{ILL|Gaetano Ruffo|it}}, {{ILL|Domenico Salvadori|it}} and [[Rocco Verduci]]), who in 1847 tried to make the [[Gerace]] district rise up as part of the Mazzinian uprising in Reggio Calabria and Messina on Sept. 2, 1847, being shot after the suppression of the liberal uprising.<ref name=":38" /><ref name=":63" /> 

When King Ferdinand II was forced to grant a liberal constitution in January 1848 after numerous popular demonstrations to that effect, many southern liberals viewed the change of government with sincere interest, so much so that many of them were elected in the April parliamentary elections. But the ruler had no plans to abide by the constitutional charter: on May 5, 1848, in a coup d'état, he dissolved Parliament and also had Naples, which had rebelled, bombed, causing more than 1,000 deaths among the commoners. At this news, insurrectional committees arose in Calabria to resist Bourbon repression, the most organized of which were from Cosenza and Catanzaro, which called together arms, funds and volunteers to resist the Bourbon army. Despite their efforts, because of divisions over how to conduct military operations, the Calabrian insurgents in June were dispersed by the arrival of 5,000 Bourbon soldiers under the command of Generals Nunziante and Busacca. After the defeat, political repression followed, manifested in death sentences or life in prison (some in absentia) of the major leaders of the uprisings.<ref name=":38" /><ref name=":63" />

This caused the final rift between the Bourbon monarchy and the liberal bourgeoisie, stricken and decimated by arrests and persecutions, which would soon join the Italian unified cause. And it was counting on this connection that [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] would manage to land on the Calabrian coast, at [[Melito di Porto Salvo]], on August 19, 1860, after conquering Sicily. Backing the Garibaldi volunteers would be the Calabrian insurgents led by {{ILL|Agostino Plutino|it}} from Reggio, thanks to whom, on August 21, with the {{ILL|Battle of Piazza Duomo|it|Battaglia di Piazza Duomo}}, he managed to conquer the city of Reggio Calabria. Then, after managing to disarm as many as 12,000 of Colonel Vial's men at [[Soveria Mannelli]], Garibaldi's army marched on Naples, where Garibaldi entered on September 6, triumphantly welcomed by the population. Finally, after the victorious [[Battle of the Volturno]] (Sept. 26-Oct. 2, 1860), by which the Bourbon reconquest of Naples was averted, the {{ILL|Meeting of Teano|it}} between Garibaldi and King [[Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy]] took place on Oct. 26, 1860, and after issuing a proclamation to his new southern subjects, he had the Mezzogiorno annexed to his crown.<ref name=":7" />

On 19 August 1860, Calabria was invaded from Sicily by [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] and his Redshirts as part of the [[Expedition of the Thousand]].<ref name="Alfred Knopf">{{cite book |last1=Norwich |first1=John Julius |title=The Middle Sea: A History of the Mediterranean |date=2007 |publisher=Alfred Knopf |location=New York |isbn=978-0307387721 |page=xxvii}}</ref> Through King Francesco II of Naples had dispatched 16,000 soldiers to stop the Redshirts, who numbered about 3,500, after a token battle at Reggio Calabria won by the Redshirts, all resistance ceased and Garibaldi was welcomed as a liberator from the oppressive rule of the Bourbons wherever he went in Calabria.<ref name="Alfred Knopf" /> Calabria together with the rest of the Kingdom of Naples was incorporated in 1861 into the Kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi planned to complete the ''Risorgimento'' by invading Rome, still ruled by the pope protected by a French garrison, and began with semi-official encouragement to raise an army.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mack Smith |first1=Denis |title=Italy and Its Monarchy |date=1989 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0300051328 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack/page/12 12-13] |url=https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack}}</ref> Subsequently, King Victor Emmanuel II decided the possibility of war with France was too dangerous, and on 29 August 1862 Garibaldi's base in the Calabrian town of [[Aspromonte]] was attacked by the ''Regio Esercito''.<ref name="Italy and Its Monarchy">{{cite book |last1=Mack Smith |first1=Denis |title=Italy and Its Monarchy |date=1989 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0300051328 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack/page/14 14] |url=https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack}}</ref> The [[Battle of Aspromonte]] ended with the Redshirts defeated with several being executed after surrendering while Garibaldi was badly wounded.<ref name="Italy and Its Monarchy" />

With the plebiscite of October 21, 1860, Calabria, along with the other southern provinces, became part of the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]]: consequently, new political elections were called to allow the newly annexed territories to have representation in Parliament. The round of elections was held on January 27, 1861, while the new Parliament was inaugurated in [[Turin]] on February 18 of the same year: the first and most important measure of the new assembly was the founding of the new Kingdom of Italy, proclaimed on March 17, 1861 with Victor Emmanuel II as constitutional king. However, the way of voting between the plebiscite and the parliamentary elections was very different: in fact, if in 1860 all male citizens who were at least 21 years of age and in possession of civil rights had been able to vote, the next round of elections was governed by the Piedmontese electoral law, which was census-based and provided for voting only for male citizens who were at least 25 years of age, able to read and write and who paid at least 40 liras in taxes. This allowed, thanks to a very narrow electorate, many members of the aristocratic and upper middle class, to which many Calabrian patriots also belonged, such as {{ILL|Francesco Stocco|it}}and the brothers {{ILL|Antonino Plutino|it}} and {{ILL|Agostino Plutino|it}}, who militated in the major political groupings of the time: the historical [[Right-wing politics|Right]], of liberal and conservative tendencies, and the historical [[Left-wing politics|Left]], of progressive and democratic ideas.<ref name=":39">{{Cite book |last=Caligiuri |first=Mario |title=Breve storia della Calabria. Dalle origini ai giorni nostri |publisher=Newton & Compton |year=1996 |isbn=88-8183-479-0 |location=Rome |language=it |trans-title=Brief history of Calabria. From its origins to the present day}}</ref><ref name=":64">{{Cite book |title=Storia della Calabria |publisher=Gangemi Editore |year=1988 |isbn=88-7448-703-7 |editor-last=Placanica |editor-first=Augusto |volume=II: La Calabria moderna e contemporanea. Età presente; approfondimenti |location=Rome-Reggio Calabria |language=it |trans-title=History of Calabria}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
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| image2            = Rete calabra 1915.JPG
| header            = Map of Calabrian railways in 1885 (top) and in 1915 (bottom)
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The political clash between Right and Left was focused particularly on how to complete the [[Unification of Italy]], which still lacked Venice and Rome: the moderates wanted national completion through diplomatic agreements and the mediation of France, the country's historical ally, while the Democrats were more inclined to armed interventions by the Italian army to liberate those territories with the consent of the local populations. This diversity of views can find a tangible depiction in 1862, when the [[Battle of Aspromonte]] took place, that is, Giuseppe Garibaldi's attempt to repeat the [[Expedition of the Thousand]], starting from Sicily and moving toward Rome to take it away from the pope and hand it over to the Kingdom of Italy. [[Urbano Rattazzi]], head of the historical Left, who had become after [[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour|Cavour]]'s death the most influential politician in the Kingdom, as he enjoyed the confidence of the sovereign, was in government at that time. When Garibaldi went to Sicily in the summer of 1862, enthusiastically welcomed by the population, the government basically let it slide, perhaps knowing of his real intentions to liberate Rome; when, however, [[Napoleon III]], a great protector of [[Pope Pius IX]], threatened to send a French expeditionary force to defend the temporal power of the Church, then both King Victor Emmanuel II and [[First Rattazzi government|Rattazzi]] ran for cover: the monarch issued a proclamation disavowing the Garibaldians' action, while the government mobilized the army to stop the general. After landing on August 25, 1862, at Melito di Porto Salvo at the head of 3,000 men, Garibaldi was met with gunfire from a military unit that had come out of Reggio: so the Garibaldini fell back to the mountainous massif of Aspromonte, where they marched for three days, encamping near [[Santo Stefano in Aspromonte|Gambarie]], in the territory of Sant'Eufemia d'Aspromonte.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Montanelli |first=Indro |title=Garibaldi |last2=Nozza |first2=Marco |publisher=Rizzoli |year=1982 |language=it}}</ref> Here, on August 29, Garibaldi's volunteers were attacked by a military column commanded by Colonel {{ILL|Emilio Pallavicini|it}}: after a brief firefight in which there were casualties on both sides (7 dead and 20 wounded for the Garibaldini, 5 dead and 23 wounded for the regular soldiers), Garibaldi, who wanted to avoid the clash, ordered a cease-fire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scirocco |first=Alfonso |title=Garibaldi. Battaglie, amori, ideali di un cittadino del mondo |publisher=Editori Laterza |year=2009 |language=it |trans-title=Garibaldi. Battles, loves, ideals of a citizen of the world.}}</ref> Also wounded in the left ankle bone, he surrendered to Pallavicini, who had him transported to Scilla and then to Paola, where he was embarked on a military ship, the {{ILL|pirofregata Duca di Genova|it}}, and transported to [[La Spezia]], where he was imprisoned in the [[Varignano]] fortress. Although he was later amnestied, the affair caused a political earthquake in Italy, culminating in Rattazzi's resignation as head of government and accusations against the King that he had deluded Garibaldi about the feasibility of carrying out the enterprise, only to abandon it when things got complicated.<ref name=":39" /><ref name=":64" />

In the early years of the new Kingdom, Calabria, too, was the scene of the [[Post-unification Italian brigandage|post-unification brigandage]], which, having always been endemic in the Mezzogiorno, was also connoted, in the transitional phase between the Bourbon and Italian kingdoms, by legitimist aspirations: in fact, local Bourbon legitimists and the government of [[Francis II of the Two Sicilies]] in exile in Rome, attempted to guide and coordinate the action of the various bands of brigands that raged in the South and that were especially hard on the exponents of the newly formed liberal regime (the “''galantuomini''”), often exponents of that agrarian bourgeoisie in search of social prestige that had always been invisible to the Bourbon dynasty. The {{ILL|Borjes Expedition|it}}, a Bourbon legitimist attempt to reconquer the Kingdom of Naples operated by [[José Borjes]], a Catalan general distinguished in the [[Carlist Wars|Carlist wars]] in Spain who thought he would succeed by imitating Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo's Sanfedist expedition sixty years earlier, must therefore be framed in this light. After receiving reassurance that the local population would support his cause, Borjes departed from [[Malta]] and landed in [[Brancaleone, Calabria|Brancaleone]] on September 14, 1861 with only 21 men, almost all Spanish: his goal was to make contact with the bands of brigands and unite them into one large army to reconquer all of the Neapolitan territory. To this end, he joined the band of {{ILL|Ferdinando Mittiga|it}}, a brigand chief operating in the area under the command of 120 men, but disagreements soon arose, because the brigand wanted to assault the town of [[Platì]] and take revenge on the local liberals, against the opinion of Borjes, who eventually had to give in. The assault took place on September 17 and was unsuccessful, as the brigands and legitimists were repelled by the National Guards and a regular army unit. This failure soon led to a break in the collaboration between the two commanders: on October 20 Borjes left Calabria to go to [[Basilicata]] and join his forces with those of [[Carmine Crocco]], thanks to whom he also achieved some partial successes, but did not achieve the final objective, as the brigand leader refused to turn his men into a regular army. Therefore, noting the failure of the plan, the [[Catalonia|Catalan]] general attempted to cross the border into the [[Papal States]] and travel to Rome to report to the Bourbon ruler, but he was captured in [[Tagliacozzo]] and immediately shot on December 8, 1861. The failure of Borjes' expedition, however, did not put an end to the phenomenon of brigandage, which continued in the Mezzogiorno with greater virulence: for this reason, the [[first Minghetti government]] on August 15, 1863 promulgated the {{ILL|Pica law|it}}, a regulation that, seeking to combat brigandage, suspended constitutional guarantees for the southern provinces, imposing a state of siege and entrusting captured brigands to the judgment of military tribunals, without the possibility of appeal or defense.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martucci |first=Roberto |title=Emergenza e tutela dell'ordine pubblico nell'Italia liberale |publisher=il Mulino |year=1980 |location=Bologna |language=it |trans-title=Emergency and the protection of law and order in liberal Italy}}</ref> As far as Calabria was concerned, the law was applied in the provinces of Calabria Citeriore and Calabria Ulteriore Seconda, while the Reggio area was exempted, as was the area around Naples and part of Apulia, as the situation in these territories was under control. The Pica law remained in force until December 31, 1865, and contributed to eradicating the phenomenon of banditry, albeit with repressive methods and without providing a substantial answer to the many social and economic problems of the southern territories.<ref name=":39" /><ref name=":64" />

An underlying issue was that of the [[latifundium]], which was in the hands of a few landowners who represented the economic and political elite of the place, forming the backbone of the southern political class. This also explains the widespread illiteracy, which peaked in the Mezzogiorno, where 90 percent of the population could neither read nor write. Even the extension to the entire Kingdom of the {{ILL|Casati Law|it}}, which introduced for the first time compulsory schooling for a maximum of two years, did not produce the hoped-for effects: the municipalities had to provide for the construction and maintenance of school buildings, as well as the recruitment and payment of elementary teachers, which was impossible for many southern municipalities, which did not build schools because they often had negative budgets orlacked the political will to start an effective school education system, as local leaders feared its potential and social claims. The same was true for the next school reform, the {{ILL|Coppino Law|it}} of 1877, which raised compulsory schooling to 9 years of age and granted low-interest loans to municipalities that built school buildings: southern municipalities, however, often did not get the work started, as they feared that the new school measure would make the peasant masses more aware of their rights, and thus local notables would lose their electoral clientele.<ref name=":39" /><ref name=":64" />

In national politics, there were numerous Calabrian politicians, often with a Risorgimento past behind them, who held important roles in the various Italian governments of that period: [[Giovanni Nicotera]], participant of the {{ILL|Sapri Expedition|it}} and comrade of [[Carlo Pisacane]], minister of the interior in the governments of [[Agostino Depretis]] and [[Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì|Antonio Di Rudinì]], who headed a Left political formation called the [[Pentarchy]] because it included the major leaders of the historical Left (Rudinì, [[Francesco Crispi]], [[Giuseppe Zanardelli]], {{ILL|Alfredo Baccarini|it}} and [[Benedetto Cairoli]]), hostile to Depretis' transformist policies; [[Luigi Miceli]], [[Giuseppe Mazzini|Mazzinian]] and Garibaldian, minister of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce in the [[third Cairoli government]]; [[Bernardino Grimaldi]], minister of Finance in the [[first Crispi government]] and the [[first Giolitti government]], culminated in the 1893 [[Banca Romana scandal|Banca Romana Scandal]].<ref name=":39" /><ref name=":64" />

During the 1880s, the economic conditions of the Mezzogiorno worsened, and its agricultural economy was severely damaged by the customs war that began between Italy and France in 1889: in fact, to protect its fragile industrial fabric, the Italian government raised import duties on foreign goods, to which France responded by shutting down imports of Italian agricultural goods, sending many southern farms into ruin. This, combined with the severe economic repression of those years, stimulated the phenomenon of emigration, especially to America, a fact that, while it decreased the demand for labor, left entire regions and countries depopulated and deprived these territories of their best energies. A case in point is [[Castrovillari]] and its surrounding area, which in 1901 recorded a decrease of 7,190 people due to transoceanic emigration.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stancati |first=Enzo |title=Cosenza e la sua provincia dall'Unità al Fascismo |publisher=Pellegrini editore |year=1988 |location=Cosenza |language=it |trans-title=Cosenza and its province from Unification to Fascism}}</ref>

In the newly unified Kingdom of Italy, there were significant differences in level of economic development between the ''Nord'' (north) of Italy and the ''Mezzogiorno'' (the south of Italy). Calabria together with the rest of the ''Mezzogiorno'' was neglected under the Kingdom of Italy with the general feeling in Rome being that the region was hopelessly backward and poor. In the late 19th century about 70% of the population of the ''Mezzogiorno'' were illiterate as the government never invested in education for the south.<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book |last1=Mack Smith |first1=Denis |title=Italy and Its Monarchy |date=1989 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0300051328 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack/page/165 165] |url=https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack}}</ref> Owing to the [[Roman Question]], until 1903 the Roman Catholic Church had prohibited on the pain of excommunication Catholic men from voting in Italian elections (Italian women were not granted the right to vote until 1946).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mack Smith |first1=Denis |title=Italy and Its Monarchy |date=1989 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0300051328 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack/page/165 165-166] |url=https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack}}</ref> As the devoutly Catholic population of Calabria tended to boycott elections, the deputies who were elected from the region were the products of the clientistic system, representing the interests of the land-owning aristocracy. In common with the deputies from other regions of the ''Mezzogiorno'', they voted against more money for education under the grounds that an educated population would demand changes that would threaten the power of the traditional elite.<ref name="archive.org"/> Owing to a weak state, society in Calabria came to be dominated in the late 19th century by an organized crime group known as [['Ndrangheta]] which, like the Mafia in Sicily and the Camorra in Campania, formed a "parallel state" that co-existed alongside the Italian state.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sergi |first1=Anna |last2=Lavorgna |first2=Anita |title='Ndrangheta: The Glocal Dimensions of the Most Powerful Italian Mafia |date=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=London |isbn=978-3319325859 |pages=13–15}}</ref> Between 1901 and 1914 Calabrians began emigrating in large numbers, mostly for North America and South America, with the peak year being 1905 with 62,690.<ref name="Palgrave Macmillan">{{cite book |last1=Sergi |first1=Anna |last2=Lavorgna |first2=Anita |title='Ndrangheta: The Glocal Dimensions of the Most Powerful Italian Mafia |date=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=London |isbn=978-3319325859 |pages=55}}</ref> 

On 28 December 1908, Calabria together with Sicily was devastated by an [[1908 Messina earthquake|earthquake and then by a tsunami]] caused by the earthquake, causing about 80,000 deaths.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book |last1=Mack Smith |first1=Denis |title=Italy and Its Monarchy |date=1989 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0300051328 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack/page/181 181] |url=https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack}}</ref> Within hours of the disaster, ships of the [[British Natives|British]] and Russian navies had arrived on the coast to assist the survivors, but it took the ''Regia Marina'' two days to send a relief expedition from Naples.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The bumbling and ineffectual response of the Italian authorities to the disaster caused by feuding officials who did not wish to co-operate with each other contributed to the high death toll as it took weeks for aid to reach some villages and caused much resentment in Calabria.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> To offset widespread criticism that the northern-dominated government in Rome did not care about the people of Calabria, King [[Victor Emmanuel III]] personally took over the relief operation and toured the destroyed villages of Calabria, which won the House of Savoy a measure of popularity in the region.<ref name="181-182">{{cite book |last1=Mack Smith |first1=Denis |title=Italy and Its Monarchy |date=1989 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0300051328 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack/page/181 181-182] |url=https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack}}</ref> Most notably, after the king took charge of the relief efforts, the feuding between officials ceased and relief aid was delivered with considerably more efficiency, winning Victor Emmanuel the gratitude of the Calabrians.<ref name="181-182"/>