Editing Almond (section)

== Toxicity ==

Bitter almonds contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds.<ref name="isrn" /> Extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses, effects are severe or lethal, especially in children; the cyanide must be removed before consumption.<ref name="isrn" /> The acute oral lethal dose of cyanide for adult humans is reported to be {{cvt|0.5|–|3.5|mg/kg|mg/lb|1}} of body weight (approximately 50 bitter almonds), so that for children consuming 5–10 bitter almonds may be fatal.<ref name="isrn" /> Symptoms of eating such almonds include [[vertigo]] and other typical cyanide poisoning effects.<ref name=":1" />

Almonds may cause [[food allergy|allergy]] or [[food intolerance|intolerance]]. Cross-reactivity is common with [[peach]] [[allergen]]s ([[lipid transfer proteins]]) and [[Tree nut allergy|tree nut allergens]]. Symptoms range from local signs and symptoms (e.g., [[oral allergy syndrome]], [[contact urticaria]]) to systemic signs and symptoms including [[anaphylaxis]] (e.g., [[urticaria]], [[angioedema]], gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.food-info.net/uk/intol/almond.htm |title=Almond allergy |publisher=Food-info.net |date=26 July 2001 |access-date=17 March 2012}}</ref>

Almonds are susceptible to [[aflatoxin]]-producing moulds.<ref>{{cite web |year=2009 |title=The high cost of aflatoxins |url=http://www.almondboard.com/Handlers/Documents/The-High-Cost-of-Aflatoxins.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607090652/http://www.almondboard.com/Handlers/Documents/The-High-Cost-of-Aflatoxins.pdf |archive-date=7 June 2013 |access-date=23 August 2012 |publisher=Almond Board of California}}</ref> Aflatoxins are potent [[carcinogen]]ic chemicals produced by moulds such as ''[[Aspergillus flavus]]'' and ''[[Aspergillus parasiticus]]''.<ref name="Rushing">{{cite journal |last1=Rushing |first1=Blake R. |last2=Selim |first2=Mustafa I. |year=2019 |title=Aflatoxin B1: A review on metabolism, toxicity, occurrence in food, occupational exposure, and detoxification methods |journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology |volume=124 |pages=81–100 |doi=10.1016/j.fct.2018.11.047 |issn=0278-6915 |pmid=30468841 |s2cid=53720187}}</ref> The mould contamination may occur from soil, previously infested almonds, and almond pests such as navel-orange worm. High levels of mould growth typically appear as grey to black filament-like growth. It is unsafe to eat mould-infected tree nuts.

Some countries have strict limits on allowable levels of aflatoxin contamination of almonds and require adequate testing before the nuts can be marketed to their citizens. The European Union, for example, introduced a requirement since 2007 that all almond shipments to the EU be tested for aflatoxin. If aflatoxin does not meet the strict safety regulations, the entire consignment may be reprocessed to eliminate the aflatoxin or it must be destroyed.<ref>{{cite web |year=2010 |title=Aflatoxins in food |url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/aflatoxins-food |publisher=European Food Safety Authority}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2010 |title=New EU Aflatoxin Levels and Sampling Plan |url=http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/New%20EU%20Aflatoxin%20Levels%20and%20Sampling%20Plan_Brussels%20USEU_EU-27_3-9-2010.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125111951/http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/New%20EU%20Aflatoxin%20Levels%20and%20Sampling%20Plan_Brussels%20USEU_EU-27_3-9-2010.pdf |archive-date=25 November 2011 |access-date=23 August 2012 |publisher=USDA Foreign Agricultural Service}}</ref>

Breeding programs have found the {{visible anchor|high shell-seal}} trait.<ref name="Robens-et-al-2000" /> High shell-seal provides [[crop disease resistance|resistance]] against these ''Aspergillus'' species and so against the development of their toxins.<ref name="Robens-et-al-2000" />

=== Mandatory pasteurization in California ===

After tracing cases of [[salmonellosis]] to almonds, the USDA approved a proposal by the Almond Board of California to pasteurize almonds sold to the public. After publishing the rule in March 2007, the almond pasteurization program became mandatory for California companies effective 1 September 2007.<ref>{{cite press release  | title = The Food Safety Program & Almond Pasteurization  | publisher = Almond Board of California  | date = 17 September 2010 | url = http://www.almondboard.com/Handlers/FoodQualitySafety/Pasteurization/Pages/Default.aspx  | access-date = 17 September 2010 | url-status = dead  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100125013631/http://www.almondboard.com/Handlers/FoodQualitySafety/Pasteurization/Pages/Default.aspx  | archive-date = 25 January 2010}}</ref> Raw, untreated California almonds have not been available in the U.S. since then.

California almonds labeled "raw" must be steam-pasteurized or chemically treated with [[propylene oxide]] (PPO). This does not apply to imported almonds<ref>[[Agricultural Marketing Service]] (8 November 2006) "Almonds Grown in California: Changes to Incoming Quality Control Requirements" ({{Federal Register |71 |65373}}, {{Federal Register |71 |65374}}, {{Federal Register |71 |65375}} and {{Federal Register |71 |65376}})</ref> or almonds sold from the grower directly to the consumer in small quantities.<ref>{{cite news  |first= Garance  |last= Burke  |title= Almond pasteurization rubs some feelings raw  |url= http://www.insidebayarea.com/business/ci_6260038  |agency= Associated Press  |date= 29 June 2007 |access-date= 8 November 2014 |url-status= live  |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141223060711/http://www.insidebayarea.com/business/ci_6260038  |archive-date= 23 December 2014}}</ref> The treatment also is not required for raw almonds sold for export outside of North America.

The Almond Board of California states: "PPO residue dissipates after treatment". The [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] has reported: "Propylene oxide has been detected in fumigated food products; consumption of contaminated food is another possible route of exposure". PPO is classified as [[List of IARC Group 2B carcinogens|Group 2B]] ("possibly carcinogenic to humans").<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wlpEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 |title=Improving the Safety and Quality of Nuts |editor=Harris LJ |year=2013 |publisher=Elsevier, Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition |isbn=978-0-85709-748-4 |pages=36–37}}</ref>

The USDA-approved marketing order was challenged in court by organic farmers organized by the [[Cornucopia Institute]], a Wisconsin-based farm policy research group which filed a lawsuit in September 2008. According to the institute, this almond marketing order has imposed significant financial burdens on small-scale and organic growers and damaged domestic almond markets. A federal judge dismissed the lawsuit in early 2009 on procedural grounds. In August 2010, a federal appeals court ruled that the farmers have a right to appeal the USDA regulation. In March 2013, the court vacated the suit on the basis that the objections should have been raised in 2007 when the regulation was first proposed.<ref>{{Cite web
 |title       = The Authentic Almond Project
 |publisher   = The Cornucopia Institute.
 |url         = http://www.cornucopia.org/almonds/
 |url-status     = live
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20100108124858/http://www.cornucopia.org/almonds/
 |archive-date = 8 January 2010
}}</ref>