Editing Age of Enlightenment (section)

===German states===
{{Further|History of Germany#Enlightenment|Hymnody of continental Europe#Rationalism}}

Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states.<ref>Charles W. Ingrao, "A Pre-Revolutionary Sonderweg." ''German History'' 20#3 (2002), pp. 279–286.</ref> The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural, and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.<ref>Katrin Keller, "Saxony: Rétablissement and Enlightened Absolutism." ''German History'' 20.3 (2002): 309–331.</ref><ref>"The German Enlightenment," ''German History'' (Dec 2017) 35#4 pp. 588–602, round table discussion of historiography.</ref>

[[File:Oer-Weimarer Musenhof.jpg|thumb|left|''Weimar's Courtyard of the Muses'' by [[Theobald von Oer]], a tribute to The Enlightenment and the [[Weimar Classicism]] depicting German poets [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]]]

Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for intellectual, cultural, and architectural leadership, as French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the ''Aufklärung'' (The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science, and literature. Christian Wolff was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and legitimized German as a philosophic language.<ref>{{cite book |first=John G. |last=Gagliardo |title=Germany under the Old Regime, 1600–1790 |year=1991 |pages=217–234, 375–395}}</ref>

[[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Gottfried von Herder]] broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the [[Sturm und Drang]] movement of proto-Romanticism. [[Weimar Classicism]] (''Weimarer Klassik'') was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical, and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] and [[Friedrich Schiller]], a poet and historian. The theatre principal [[Abel Seyler]] greatly influenced the development of German theatre and promoted serious [[German opera]], new works and experimental productions, and the concept of a national theatre.<ref>[[Wilhelm Kosch]], "Seyler, Abel", in ''[[Dictionary of German Biography]]'', eds. [[Walther Killy]] and [[Rudolf Vierhaus]], Vol. 9, [[Walter de Gruyter]], 2005, {{ISBN|978-3-11-096629-9}}, p. 308</ref> Herder argued that every group of people had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny.<ref>{{citation |editor-first=Simon J. |editor-last=Richter |title=The Literature of Weimar Classicism |year=2005}}</ref>

German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], [[Joseph Haydn]], and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Samantha |editor-last=Owens |editor2-last=Reul |editor2-first=Barbara M. |editor3-last=Stockigt |editor3-first=Janice B. |title=Music at German Courts, 1715–1760: Changing Artistic Priorities |year=2011}}</ref>

In remote [[Königsberg]], Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom, and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought—and indeed all of European philosophy—well into the 20th century.<ref>{{cite book |first=Manfred |last=Kuehn |title=Kant: A Biography |year=2001}}</ref> German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats, and the middle classes, and it permanently reshaped the culture.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Van Dulmen |editor2-first=Anthony |editor2-last=Williams |title=The Society of the Enlightenment: The Rise of the Middle Class and Enlightenment Culture in Germany |year=1992}}</ref> However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far.<ref>[[Thomas P. Saine]], ''The Problem of Being Modern, or the German Pursuit of Enlightenment from Leibniz to the French Revolution'' (1997)</ref>

In 1788, Prussia issued an "Edict on Religion" that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity or the Bible. The goal was to avoid theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.<ref>Michael J. Sauter, "The Enlightenment on trial: state service and social discipline in eighteenth-century Germany's public sphere." ''Modern Intellectual History'' 5.2 (2008): 195–223.</ref>