Editing Yellow fever (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of yellow fever}}

===Early history===
[[File:Affinerie des sucres (1).JPG|thumb|Sugar curing house, 1762: Sugar pots and jars on sugar plantations served as breeding place for larvae of ''A. aegypti'', the vector of yellow fever.]]
[[File:Yellow Fever Deaths Lafayette Cemetery 1 New Orleans.jpg|thumb|Headstones of people who died in the [[History of yellow fever#Lower Mississippi Valley: 1878|yellow fever epidemic of 1878]] can be found in New Orleans' cemeteries]]
[[File:James Biddle to Sec Nav Thompson re deaths aboard USS Macedonian 3 August 1822 p 1.jpg|thumb|upright|A page from Commodore James Biddle's list of the 76 dead (74 of yellow fever) aboard the USS ''Macedonian'', dated 3 August 1822]]

The evolutionary origins of yellow fever most likely lie in Africa, with transmission of the disease from nonhuman primates to humans.<ref name="pmid14696332">{{cite book |vauthors=Gould EA, de Lamballerie X, Zanotto PM, Holmes EC |title=Origins, evolution, coadaptations within the genus Flavivirus |series=Advances in Virus Research |volume=59 |pages=277–314 |year=2003 |pmid=14696332 |doi=10.1016/S0065-3527(03)59008-X |isbn=978-0-12-039859-1 }}</ref><ref name="Bryant2007"/> The virus is thought to have originated in East or Central Africa and spread from there to West Africa. As it was endemic in Africa, local populations had developed some immunity to it. When an outbreak of yellow fever would occur in an African community where colonists resided, most Europeans died, while the indigenous Africans usually developed nonlethal symptoms resembling [[influenza]].<ref name=Old2009/> This phenomenon, in which certain populations develop immunity to yellow fever due to prolonged exposure in their childhood, is known as [[acquired immunity]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = McNeill JR |title=Mosquito Empires: Ecology and war in the greater Caribbean, 1620–1914 |url=https://archive.org/details/mosquitoempirese00mcne |url-access=limited |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=NY |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mosquitoempirese00mcne/page/n63 44]–45}}</ref> The virus, as well as the vector ''A. aegypti,'' were probably transferred to North and South America with the trafficking of [[Atlantic slave trade|slaves]] from Africa, part of the [[Columbian exchange]] following European exploration and colonization.<ref name="pmid30158957">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chippaux JP, Chippaux A | title = Yellow fever in Africa and the Americas: a historical and epidemiological perspective | journal = The Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases | volume = 24 | issue = | page = 20 | date = 2018 | pmid = 30158957 | pmc = 6109282 | doi = 10.1186/s40409-018-0162-y | doi-access = free }}</ref> However, some researchers have argued that yellow fever might have existed in the Americas during the pre-Columbian period as mosquitoes of the genus ''Haemagogus'', which is indigenous to the Americas, have been known to carry the disease.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Robert L. |title=Yellow fever: Ecology, epidemiology, and role in the collapse of the Classic lowland Maya civilization |journal=Medical Anthropology |date=November 1994 |volume=16 |issue=1–4 |pages=269–294 |doi=10.1080/01459740.1994.9966118 |pmid=8643025 }}</ref>

The first definitive outbreak of yellow fever in the New World was in 1647 on the island of [[Barbados]].<ref name=mcneill>{{cite journal |last1=McNeill |first1=J. R. |title=Yellow Jack and Geopolitics: Environment, Epidemics, and the Struggles for Empire in the American Tropics, 1650-1825 |journal=OAH Magazine of History |date=April 2004 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=9–13 |doi=10.1093/maghis/18.3.9 }}</ref> An outbreak was recorded by Spanish colonists in 1648 in the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], where the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Mayan people]] called the illness ''xekik'' ("blood vomit"). In 1685, Brazil suffered its first epidemic in [[Recife]]. The first mention of the disease by the name "yellow fever" occurred in 1744.<ref>The earliest mention of "yellow fever" appears in a manuscript of 1744 by [[John Mitchell (geographer)|Dr. John Mitchell]] of Virginia; copies of the manuscript were sent to Mr. [[Cadwallader Colden]], a physician in New York, and to Dr. [[Benjamin Rush]] of Philadelphia; the manuscript was eventually printed (in large part) in 1805 and reprinted in 1814.  See:
* {{cite journal | vauthors = | title = Dr. John Mitchell's Account of the Yellow Fever in Virginia in 1741-42, Written in 1748 | journal = Annals of Medical History | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 91–92 | date = January 1934 | pmid = 33944007 | pmc = 7943142 | doi = | url = }}</ref><ref>(John Mitchell) (1805) [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ21Uy4-lb0C&pg=PA1 (Mitchell's account of the Yellow Fever in Virginia in 1741–2)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223052443/https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ21Uy4-lb0C&pg=PA1|date=2017-02-23}}, ''The Philadelphia Medical Museum,'' 1 (1) : 1–20.</ref><ref>(John Mitchell) (1814) [https://books.google.com/books?id=_EZJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA181 "Account of the Yellow fever which prevailed in Virginia in the years 1737, 1741, and 1742, in a letter to the late Cadwallader Colden, Esq. of New York, from the late John Mitchell, M.D.F.R.S. of Virginia,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223052456/https://books.google.com/books?id=_EZJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA181|date=2017-02-23}} ''American Medical and Philosophical Register'', '''4''' : 181–215. The term ''yellow fever'' appears on p.&nbsp;186. On p.&nbsp;188, Mitchell mentions "... the distemper was what is generally called yellow fever in America." However, on pages 191–192, he states "... I shall consider the cause of the yellowness which is so remarkable in this distemper, as to have given it the name of the Yellow Fever." Unfortunately, Mitchell misidentified the cause of yellow fever, believing it was transmitted through '"putrid miasma" in the air.'{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}</ref>

However, Dr. Mitchell misdiagnosed the disease that he observed and treated, and the disease was probably [[Weil's disease]] or [[hepatitis]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jarcho S | title = John Mitchell, Benjamin Rush, and yellow fever | journal = Bulletin of the History of Medicine | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 132–136 | year = 1957 | pmid = 13426674 }}</ref> McNeill argues that the environmental and ecological disruption caused by the introduction of [[History of sugar|sugar plantations]] created the conditions for mosquito and viral reproduction, and subsequent outbreaks of yellow fever.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = McNeill J |title=Mosquito Empires: Ecology and War in the Greater Caribbean, 1620–1914 |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0-511-67268-2}}</ref> Deforestation reduced populations of insectivorous birds and other creatures that fed on mosquitoes and their eggs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Burkett-Cadena ND, Vittor AY | title = Deforestation and vector-borne disease: Forest conversion favors important mosquito vectors of human pathogens | journal = Basic and Applied Ecology | volume = 26 | pages = 101–110 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 34290566 | pmc = 8290921 | doi = 10.1016/j.baae.2017.09.012 | bibcode = 2018BApEc..26..101B }}</ref>

In [[British America|Colonial times]] and during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the West Indies were known as a particularly dangerous posting for soldiers due to yellow fever being endemic in the area.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Buckley RN |date=1978 |title=The Destruction of the British Army in the West Indies 1793-1815: A Medical History |journal=Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research |volume=56 |issue=226 |pages=79–92 |jstor=44224266 |pmid=11614813 }}</ref> The mortality rate in British garrisons in [[Jamaica]] was seven times that of garrisons in Canada, mostly because of yellow fever and other tropical diseases.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McNeill JR | title = Yellow fever and geopolitics: environment, epidemics, and the struggles for empire in the American tropics, 1650-1900 | journal = History Now | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 10–16 | date = 2002 | pmid = 20690235 }}</ref> Both English and French forces posted there were seriously affected by the "yellow jack".<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = McNeill JR |date=2004 |title=Yellow Jack and Geopolitics: Environment, Epidemics, and the Struggles for Empire in the American Tropics, 1640-1830 |journal=Review (Fernand Braudel Center) |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=343–364 |jstor=40241611 }}</ref> Wanting to regain control of the lucrative sugar trade in [[Saint-Domingue]] (Hispaniola), and with an eye on regaining France's New World empire, Napoleon sent an army under the command of his brother-in-law General [[Charles Leclerc (general, born 1772)|Charles Leclerc]] to Saint-Domingue to seize control after a slave revolt.<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Marshall A |date=2020-11-18 |title=What was the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)? |url=https://bootcampmilitaryfitnessinstitute.com/2020/11/18/what-was-the-haitian-revolution-1791-1804/ |access-date=2022-04-25 |website=Boot Camp & Military Fitness Institute |language=en-GB}}</ref> The historian J. R. McNeill asserts that yellow fever accounted for about 35,000 to 45,000 casualties of these forces during the fighting.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = McNeill JR |title=Mosquito Empires: Ecology and War in the Greater Caribbean, 1620–1914 |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=259}}</ref> Only one-third of the French troops survived for withdrawal and return to France. Napoleon gave up on the island and his plans for North America, selling the [[Louisiana Purchase]] to the US in 1803. In 1804, [[Haiti]] proclaimed its independence as the second republic in the Western Hemisphere.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-02-11 |title=Haiti profile - Timeline |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-19548814 |access-date=2022-04-25}}</ref> Considerable debate exists over whether the number of deaths caused by disease in the [[Haitian Revolution]] was exaggerated.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Girard PR |title=The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence, 1801–1804 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03XSP22p3kgC&pg=PA179 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |pages=179–80 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911094340/https://books.google.com/books?id=03XSP22p3kgC&pg=PA179 |archive-date=2016-09-11 |isbn=978-0-8173-1732-4}}</ref>

Although yellow fever is most prevalent in tropical-like climates, the northern United States was not exempt from the fever. The first outbreak in English-speaking North America occurred in [[New York City]] in 1668.<ref>{{Cite book | vauthors = Kotar SL, Gessler JE |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odYBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |title=Yellow Fever: A Worldwide History |date=2017-02-03 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-2628-4 |language=en}}</ref> English colonists in [[Philadelphia]] and the French in the [[Mississippi River Valley]] recorded major outbreaks in 1669, as well as additional yellow fever epidemics in Philadelphia, [[Baltimore]], and New York City in the 18th and 19th centuries. The disease traveled along [[steamboat]] routes from New Orleans, causing some 100,000–150,000 deaths in total.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Patterson KD | title = Yellow fever epidemics and mortality in the United States, 1693-1905 | journal = Social Science & Medicine | volume = 34 | issue = 8 | pages = 855–865 | date = April 1992 | pmid = 1604377 | doi = 10.1016/0277-9536(92)90255-O }}</ref> The [[Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793|yellow fever epidemic of 1793]] in Philadelphia, which was then the capital of the United States, resulting in the deaths of several thousand people, more than 9% of the population.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Miller JC |title=The Wages of Blackness: African American Workers and the Meanings of Race during Philadelphia's 1793 Yellow Fever Epidemic |journal=The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography |year=2005 |volume=129 |issue=2 |pages=163–194}}</ref> One of these deaths was [[James Hutchinson (physician)|James Hutchinson]], a physician helping to treat the population of the city. The [[Relocation of the United States Government to Trenton|national government fled]] the city to Trenton, New Jersey, including President [[George Washington]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Yellow Fever Attacks Philadelphia, 1793 |work=EyeWitness to History |url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/yellowfever.htm |access-date=2009-08-14 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607233805/http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/yellowfever.htm |archive-date=2007-06-07 }}</ref>

The southern city of [[New Orleans]] was plagued with major epidemics during the 19th century, most notably in 1833 and 1853.<ref>{{Cite news |title=How Yellow Fever Turned New Orleans Into The 'City Of The Dead' |language=en |work=Codeswitch |publisher=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2018/10/31/415535913/how-yellow-fever-turned-new-orleans-into-the-city-of-the-dead |access-date=2022-04-25}}</ref> A major epidemic occurred in both New Orleans and [[Shreveport, Louisiana]], in 1873. Its residents called the disease "yellow jack". Urban epidemics continued in the United States until 1905, with the last outbreak affecting New Orleans.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Pierce J, Writer J  |title=Yellow Jack: How Yellow Fever ravaged America and Walter Reed Discovered Its Deadly Secrets |url=https://archive.org/details/yellowjackhowyel0000pier |url-access=registration |year=2005 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Hoboken |page=[https://archive.org/details/yellowjackhowyel0000pier/page/3 3]}}</ref><ref name="Barr2007" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=1545 |title=The Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture:Yellow Fever Epidemics |publisher=Tennessee Historical Society |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212071247/http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=1545 |archive-date=December 12, 2013 |url-status=live |access-date=June 20, 2013}}</ref>

At least 25 major outbreaks took place in the Americas during the 18th and 19th centuries, including particularly serious ones in [[Cartagena, Chile]], in 1741; Cuba in 1762 and 1900; [[Santo Domingo]] in 1803; and [[Memphis, Tennessee]], in 1878.<ref>John S. Marr, and John T. Cathey. "The 1802 Saint-Domingue yellow fever epidemic and the Louisiana Purchase." ''Journal of Public Health Management and Practice'' 19#.1 (2013): 77–82. [http://s2.medicina.uady.mx/observatorio/docs/er/ac/RE2013_Ac_Marr.pdf online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204181607/http://s2.medicina.uady.mx/observatorio/docs/er/ac/RE2013_Ac_Marr.pdf |date=2016-02-04 }}</ref>

In the early 19th century, the prevalence of yellow fever in the Caribbean "led to serious health problems" and alarmed the [[United States Navy]] as numerous deaths and sickness curtailed naval operations and destroyed morale.<ref>Langley, Harold D. ''A History of Medicine in the Early U.S. Navy'' (Johns Hopkins Press: Baltimore 1995), 274-275</ref> One episode began in April 1822 when the frigate [[HMS Macedonian|USS ''Macedonian'']] left [[Boston]] and became part of Commodore James Biddle's West India Squadron. Unbeknownst to all, they were about to embark on a cruise to disaster and their assignment "would prove a cruise through hell".<ref name="Sharp The Disastrous Voyage">{{cite web | vauthors = Sharp JG | title = The Disastrous Voyage: Yellow Fever aboard the USS Macedonian & USS Peacock, 1822 | access-date = 15 August 2020 | url = http://www.usgwarchives.net/va/portsmouth/shipyard/yf1822.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191025010821/http://www.usgwarchives.net/va/portsmouth/shipyard/yf1822.html | archive-date = 25 October 2019 }}</ref> Secretary of the Navy [[Smith Thompson]] had assigned the squadron to guard United States merchant shipping and suppress piracy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy - 1823 |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/a/secnav-reports/1823.html |access-date=2022-04-25 |website=NHHC |language=en-US }}</ref> During their time on deployment from 26 May to 3 August 1822, 76 of the ''Macedonian''{{'}}s officers and men died, including John Cadle, surgeon USN. Seventy-four of these deaths were attributed to yellow fever. Biddle reported that another 52 of his crew were on the sick list. In their report to the secretary of the Navy, Biddle and Surgeon's Mate Charles Chase stated the cause as "fever". As a consequence of this loss, Biddle noted that his squadron was forced to return to Norfolk Navy Yard early. Upon arrival, the ''Macedonian''{{'}}s crew were provided medical care and quarantined at [[Craney Island (Virginia)|Craney Island, Virginia]].<ref>{{cite journal | journal = Nara M125 | volume = 79 | id = letter no. 15 | title = Captains Letters | author = James Biddle to Smith Thompson | date = 3 August 1822 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = The Macedonian a list of the deaths | work = Connecticut Herald | date = 20 August 1822 | page = 2 }}</ref><ref name="Sharp The Disastrous Voyage"/>

In 1853, [[Cloutierville, Louisiana]], had a late-summer outbreak of yellow fever that quickly killed 68 of the 91 inhabitants. A local doctor concluded that some unspecified infectious agent had arrived in a package from New Orleans.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=The Transactions of the American Medical Association |volume=9 |date=1856 |page=704 |title=Yellow Fever at the Village of Cloutierville, La, in the Years 1853 and 1854 |first1=Samuel O. |last1=Scruggs }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=D' Antoni |first1=Blaise C. |title=Cloutierville Yellow Fever Deaths, 1853 |journal=New Orleans Genesis |volume=9 |issue=35 |date=June 1970 |pages=261–262 }}</ref> In 1854, 650 residents of [[Savannah, Georgia]], died from yellow fever.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lockley T  |title='Like a clap of thunder in a clear sky': differential mortality during Savannah's yellow fever epidemic of 1854 |journal=Social History |date=2012 |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=166–186 |doi=10.1080/03071022.2012.675657 |url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/49566/1/WRAP_Lockley_9670721-hi-160114-like_a_clap_of_thunder_in_a_clear_sky.pdf }}</ref> In 1858, [[St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina]], had 308 yellow fever deaths, reducing the congregation by half.<ref>St. Matthew's Evangelical Lutheran Church: 125 Years of Christian Service, 1967.</ref> A ship carrying persons infected with the virus arrived in [[Hampton Roads]] in southeastern [[Virginia]] in June 1855.<ref name="Virginia">{{cite web |url=http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/fever-browse?id=N2659002 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212204518/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/fever-browse?id=N2659002 |archive-date=2012-12-12 |title=Mosquito control ends fatal plague of yellow fever |access-date=2007-06-11 | vauthors = Mauer HB |publisher=etext.lib.virginia.edu }} (undated newspaper clipping).</ref> The disease spread quickly through the community, eventually killing over 3,000 people, mostly residents of [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]] and [[Portsmouth, Virginia|Portsmouth]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Yellow Fever |url=http://www.usgwarchives.net/va/yellow-fever/yftoc.html |website=www.usgwarchives.net |access-date=30 September 2019}}</ref> In 1873, Shreveport, Louisiana, lost 759 citizens in an 80-day period to a yellow fever epidemic, with over 400 additional victims eventually succumbing. The total death toll from August through November was approximately 1,200.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ldh.la.gov/assets/oph/Center-PHCH/Center-CH/infectious-epi/Annuals/LaIDAnnual_YellowFever.pdf|title=Louisiana Office of Public Health Statistics, page 6|access-date=28 September 2018|archive-date=4 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204032113/http://ldh.la.gov/assets/oph/Center-PHCH/Center-CH/infectious-epi/Annuals/LaIDAnnual_YellowFever.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oaklandcemeteryla.org/Tour/Tour-Stop-1.aspx|title=Tour Stop 1 - Yellow Fever Victims - Tour - Oakland Cemetery - Shreveport - Louisiana - Founded 1847|website=www.oaklandcemeteryla.org|access-date=2018-09-28|archive-date=2018-09-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928202518/http://www.oaklandcemeteryla.org/Tour/Tour-Stop-1.aspx}}</ref>

In 1878, about 20,000 people died in a widespread [[Lower Mississippi Valley yellow fever epidemic of 1878|epidemic in the Mississippi River Valley]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Crosby MC |title=The American Plague |year=2006 |publisher=Berkley Publishing Group |location=New York |page=75}}</ref> That year, Memphis had an unusually large amount of rain, which led to an increase in the mosquito population. The result was a huge epidemic of yellow fever.<ref>{{cite web |title=Yellow Fever — the plague of Memphis |url=http://historic-memphis.com/memphis-historic/yellow-fever/yellow-fever.html |publisher=HistoricMemphis.com |access-date=August 20, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821093209/http://historic-memphis.com/memphis-historic/yellow-fever/yellow-fever.html |archive-date=August 21, 2014}}</ref> The steamship John D. Porter took people fleeing Memphis northward in hopes of escaping the disease, but passengers were not allowed to disembark due to concerns of spreading yellow fever. The ship roamed the Mississippi River for the next two months before unloading her passengers.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Barnes E |year=2005 |title=Diseases and Human Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/diseaseshumanevo0000barn |url-access=registration |location=Albuquerque |publisher=University of New Mexico |isbn=978-0-8263-3065-9 }}</ref>

Major outbreaks have also occurred in southern Europe. [[Gibraltar]] lost many lives to outbreaks in 1804, 1814, and 1828.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sawchuk LA, Burke SD | title = Gibraltar's 1804 yellow fever scourge: the search for scapegoats | journal = Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–42 | date = January 1998 | pmid = 9510598 | doi = 10.1093/jhmas/53.1.3 }}</ref> [[Barcelona]] suffered the loss of several thousand citizens during an outbreak in 1821. The [[Armand-Emmanuel de Vignerot du Plessis, Duc de Richelieu|Duke de Richelieu]] deployed 30,000 French troops to the border between [[France]] and [[Spain]] in the [[Pyrenees Mountains]], to establish a ''[[Cordon sanitaire (medicine)|cordon sanitaire]]'' to prevent the epidemic from spreading from Spain into France.<ref name = "Taylor">James Taylor, ''The age we live in: a history of the nineteenth century,'' Oxford University, 1882; p. 222.</ref>

===Causes and transmission===
[[Ezekiel Stone Wiggins]], known as the Ottawa Prophet, proposed that the cause of a yellow fever epidemic in [[Jacksonville, Florida]], in 1888, was astrological.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-30 |title=World Diseases – 'Yellow Fever' |work=West Bend News |url=https://www.westbendnews.net/autonews/2020/06/30/world-diseases-yellow-fever/ |access-date=2022-04-25 |language=en-US}}</ref>

{{blockquote|The planets were in the same line as the sun and earth and this produced, besides Cyclones, Earthquakes, etc., a denser atmosphere holding more carbon and creating microbes. Mars had an uncommonly dense atmosphere, but its inhabitants were probably protected from the fever by their newly discovered [[Mars canals|canals]], which were perhaps made to absorb carbon and prevent the disease.<ref>[http://historicaltextarchive.com/print.php?action=section&artid=781 John W. Cowart, "Yellow Jack in Jacksonville, Yellow Fever visited Duval County, Florida, in 1888"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105144757/http://historicaltextarchive.com/print.php?action=section&artid=781 |date=2013-01-05 }}, Historical Text Archive</ref>}}

In 1848, [[Josiah C. Nott]] suggested that yellow fever was spread by insects such as moths or mosquitoes, basing his ideas on the pattern of transmission of the disease.<ref>Josiah C. Nott (1848) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044103099172;view=1up;seq=601 "Yellow Fever contrasted with Bilious Fever – Reasons for believing it a disease sui generis – Its mode of Propagation – Remote Cause – Probable insect or animalcular origin"], ''The New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal,'' "4" : 563–601.</ref> [[Carlos Finlay]], a Cuban-Spanish doctor and scientist, proposed in 1881 that yellow fever might be transmitted by previously infected [[mosquito]]es rather than by direct contact from person to person, as had long been believed.<ref>Carlos Juan Finlay (presented:  August 14, 1881; published:  1882) [https://books.google.com/books?id=cMMYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147 "El mosquito hipoteticamente considerado como agente de transmission de la fiebre amarilla"] ({{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223052838/https://books.google.com/books?id=cMMYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147 |date=2017-02-23 }}) (The mosquito hypothetically considered as an agent in the transmission of yellow fever) ''Anales de la Real Academia de Ciencias Médicas, Físicas y Naturales de la Habana'', '''18''' : 147–169.  Available online in English at:
*  Charles Finlay, with Rudolph Matas, translator (1881) [https://books.google.com/books?id=Qd9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA601 "The mosquito hypothetically considered as an agent in the transmission of yellow fever poison,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223042231/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qd9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA601 |date=2017-02-23 }} ''New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal,'' '''9''' : 601–616.
*  [http://www.deltaomega.org/documents/finlay.pdf Delta Omega.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509234452/http://www.deltaomega.org/documents/finlay.pdf |date=2012-05-09 }}</ref><ref name="Chaves-Carballo_2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chaves-Carballo E | title = Carlos Finlay and yellow fever: triumph over adversity | journal = Military Medicine | volume = 170 | issue = 10 | pages = 881–885 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16435764 | doi = 10.7205/milmed.170.10.881 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Since the losses from yellow fever in the [[Spanish–American War]] in the 1890s were extremely high, U.S. Army doctors began research experiments with a team led by [[Walter Reed]], and composed of doctors [[James Carroll (scientist)|James Carroll]], [[Aristides Agramonte]], and [[Jesse William Lazear]]. They successfully proved Finlay's "mosquito hypothesis". Yellow fever was the first virus shown to be transmitted by mosquitoes. The physician [[William Gorgas]] applied these insights and eradicated yellow fever from [[Havana]]. He also campaigned against yellow fever during the construction of the [[Panama Canal]]. A previous effort of canal building by the French had failed in part due to mortality from the high incidence of yellow fever and malaria, which killed many workers.<ref name=Barr2007/>

Although Reed has received much of the credit in United States history books for "beating" yellow fever, he had fully credited Finlay with the discovery of the yellow fever vector, and how it might be controlled. Reed often cited Finlay's papers in his articles and also credited him for the discovery in his correspondence.<ref name="pierce">{{cite book | vauthors = Pierce JR, Writer J |title=Yellow Jack: How Yellow Fever Ravaged America and Walter Reed Discovered Its Deadly Secrets |url=https://archive.org/details/yellowjackhowyel0000pier |url-access=registration |publisher=Wiley |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-471-47261-2 }}</ref> The acceptance of Finlay's work was one of the most important and far-reaching effects of the U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission of 1900.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/yellowfever/ |title=U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission |work=UVA Health Sciences: Historical Collections |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170426200032/http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/yellowfever/ |archive-date=2017-04-26 |url-status=live |access-date=2017-08-01}}</ref> Applying methods first suggested by Finlay, the United States government and Army eradicated yellow fever in Cuba and later in Panama, allowing completion of the Panama Canal. While Reed built on the research of Finlay, historian François Delaporte notes that yellow fever research was a contentious issue. Scientists, including Finlay and Reed, became successful by building on the work of less prominent scientists, without always giving them the credit they were due.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Delaporte F |title=The History of Yellow Fever: An Essay on the Birth of Tropical Medicine |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofyellowf00dela |url-access=registration |year=1991 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofyellowf00dela/page/89 89–90]|isbn=978-0-262-04112-6 }}</ref> Reed's research was essential in the fight against yellow fever. He is also credited for using the first type of [[informed consent|medical consent]] form during his experiments in Cuba, an attempt to ensure that participants knew they were taking a risk by being part of testing.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Crosby MC |title=The American Plague |year=2006 |publisher=Berkley Publishing Group |location=New York |page=177}}</ref>

Like Cuba and Panama, Brazil also led a highly successful sanitation campaign against mosquitoes and yellow fever. Beginning in 1903, the campaign led by [[Oswaldo Cruz]], then director general of public health, resulted not only in eradicating the disease but also in reshaping the physical landscape of Brazilian cities such as Rio de Janeiro.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilson AL, Courtenay O, Kelly-Hope LA, Scott TW, Takken W, Torr SJ, Lindsay SW | title = The importance of vector control for the control and elimination of vector-borne diseases | journal = PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = e0007831 | date = January 2020 | pmid = 31945061 | pmc = 6964823 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007831 | doi-access = free }}</ref> During rainy seasons, Rio de Janeiro regularly suffered floods, as water from the bay surrounding the city overflowed into Rio's narrow streets. Coupled with the poor drainage systems found throughout Rio, this created swampy conditions in the city's neighborhoods. Pools of stagnant water stood year-long in city streets and proved to be fertile ground for disease-carrying mosquitoes. Thus, under Cruz's direction, public health units known as "mosquito inspectors" fiercely worked to combat yellow fever throughout Rio by spraying, exterminating rats, improving drainage, and destroying unsanitary housing. Ultimately, the city's sanitation and renovation campaigns reshaped Rio de Janeiro's neighborhoods. Its poor residents were pushed from city centers to Rio's suburbs, or to towns found in the outskirts of the city. In later years, Rio's most impoverished inhabitants would come to reside in ''[[favela]]s''.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9781394266500.ch6 |chapter=Immigration, and Urban and Rural Life |title=A History of Modern Latin America |date=2022 |pages=142–162 |isbn=978-1-394-26650-0 }}</ref>

During 1920–1923, the [[Rockefeller Foundation]]'s [[International Health Board]] <!-- (IHB) --> undertook an expensive and successful yellow fever eradication campaign in Mexico.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Fosdick RB |title=The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation |date=1952 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |location=New York |pages=58–79}}</ref> The IHB gained the respect of Mexico's federal government because of the success. The eradication of yellow fever strengthened the relationship between the US and Mexico, which had not been very good in the years prior. The eradication of yellow fever was also a major step toward better global health.<ref name="pmid10501641">{{cite journal | vauthors = Birn AE, Solórzano A | title = Public health policy paradoxes: science and politics in the Rockefeller Foundation's hookworm campaign in Mexico in the 1920s | journal = Social Science & Medicine | volume = 49 | issue = 9 | pages = 1197–1213 | date = November 1999 | pmid = 10501641 | doi = 10.1016/s0277-9536(99)00160-4 }}</ref>

In 1927, scientists isolated the Yellow fever virus in West Africa.<ref name=Bigon>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bigon L |year=2014 |title=Transnational Networks of Administrating Disease and Urban Planning in West Africa: The Inter-Colonial Conference on Yellow Fever, Dakar, 1928 |journal=GeoJournal |volume=79 |number=1 |pages=103–111 |doi=10.1007/s10708-013-9476-z |bibcode=2014GeoJo..79..103B |s2cid=153603689 }}</ref> Following this, two [[vaccine]]s were developed in the 1930s. [[Max Theiler]] led the completion of the 17D [[yellow fever vaccine]] in 1937, for which he was subsequently awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1951/index.html | title = The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1951 | access-date = 2017-11-30 | publisher = Nobel Foundation}}</ref> That vaccine, 17D, is still in use, although newer vaccines, based on [[vero cell]]s, are in development (as of 2018).<ref name=Toll2009/><ref name=NIH-2016>{{cite press release |url=https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-launches-early-stage-yellow-fever-vaccine-trial |title=NIH launches early-stage yellow fever vaccine trial |date=July 27, 2016 |author=National Institutes of Health |publisher=[[United States Department of Health and Human Services]] |access-date=July 14, 2019 |author-link=National Institutes of Health }}</ref><ref name=ClinicalTrials-2018>{{citation |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02743455 |title=A Phase I Trial to Evaluate the Safety, Reactogenicity, and Immunogenicity of MVA-BN Yellow Fever Vaccine With and Without Montanide ISA-720 Adjuvant in 18–45 Year Old Healthy Volunteers (NCT number: NCT02743455) |date=June 1, 2018 |author=[[National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases]] (NIAID) |publisher=[[United States National Library of Medicine]] |access-date=July 14, 2019}}.</ref>

<gallery widths="160" heights="200">
File:Juan Manuel Blanes Episodio de la Fiebre Amarilla.jpg|A painting depicting [[yellow fever in Buenos Aires]], 1871
File:Finlay Carlos 1833-1915.jpg|[[Carlos Finlay]]
File:WalterReed.jpeg|[[Walter Reed]]
File:Max Theiler nobel.jpg|[[Max Theiler]]
</gallery>

===Current status===
Using vector control and strict vaccination programs, the urban cycle of yellow fever was nearly eradicated from South America.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yellow fever |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/yellow-fever |access-date=2022-04-25 |website=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Since 1943, only a single urban outbreak in [[Santa Cruz de la Sierra]], Bolivia, has occurred. Since the 1980s, however, the number of yellow fever cases has been increasing again, and ''A. aegypti'' has returned to the urban centers of South America. This is partly due to limitations on available insecticides, as well as habitat dislocations caused by climate change. It is also because the vector control program was abandoned. Although no new urban cycle has yet been established, scientists believe this could happen again at any point. An outbreak in [[Paraguay]] in 2008 was thought to be urban in nature, but this ultimately proved not to be the case.<ref name=Toll2009/>

In Africa, virus eradication programs have mostly relied upon vaccination.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Deressa W, Kayembe P, Neel AH, Mafuta E, Seme A, Alonge O | title = Lessons learned from the polio eradication initiative in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Ethiopia: analysis of implementation barriers and strategies | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 20 | issue = Suppl 4 | page = 1807 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33339529 | pmc = 7747367 | doi = 10.1186/s12889-020-09879-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref> These programs have largely been unsuccessful because they were unable to break the [[sylvatic cycle]] involving wild primates. With few countries establishing regular vaccination programs, measures to fight yellow fever have been neglected, making the future spread of the virus more likely.<ref name=Toll2009/>