Editing Woman (section)

== Culture and gender roles ==
{{Main|Gender role}}
{{see also|Women in the workforce|Women in the military}}
In recent history, gender roles have changed greatly. At some earlier points in history, children's occupational aspirations starting at a young age differed according to gender.<ref>{{cite book| last1=Sharpe| first1=S. |title=Just like a Girl |date=1976 |publisher=Penguin| location=London|isbn=978-0140219531}}</ref> Traditionally, [[middle class]] women were involved in domestic tasks emphasizing child care. For poorer women, economic necessity compelled them to seek employment outside the home even if individual poor women may have preferred domestic tasks. Many of the occupations that were available to them were lower in pay than those available to men.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hartmann |first=Heidi I. |date=1976 |title=Women's Work in the United States |journal=Current History |volume=70 |issue=416 |pages=215–229 |jstor=45313850 }}</ref>
[[File:Abeer Mostafa at work.jpg|thumb|An Egyptian Muslim woman who works as a men's hairdresser to "confront the customs and traditions of her society and conquer their criticism."|alt=woman wearing a headscarf prepares to cut a man's hair]]
[[File:Defense.gov News Photo 100806-M-0301S-111 - U.S. Marine Cpl. Mary E. Walls right an ammunition technician and linguist Sahar both with a female engagement team patrol with 1st Battalion.jpg|thumb|Two women [[patrolling]]]]
As changes in the labor market for women came about, availability of employment changed from only "dirty", long hour factory jobs to "cleaner", more respectable office jobs where more education was demanded. Married women's participation in the U.S. labor force rose from 5.6–6% in 1900 to 23.8% in 1923.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The First Measured Century: Book: Section 2.8 |url=https://www.pbs.org/fmc/book/2work8.htm |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fosu |first=Augustin Kwasi |date=1990 |title=Labor Force Participation by Married Women: Recent Intercity Evidence |journal=Eastern Economic Journal |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=229–238 |jstor=40326204 }}</ref> These shifts in the labor force led to changes in the attitudes towards women at work, allowing for the revolution which resulted in women becoming career and education oriented.{{citation needed |date=August 2014}}

In the 1970s, many female academics, including scientists, avoided having children. Throughout the 1980s, institutions tried to equalize conditions for men and women in the workplace. Even so, the inequalities at home hampered women's opportunities: professional women were still generally considered responsible for domestic labor and child care, which limited the time and energy they could devote to their careers. Until the early 20th century, U.S. women's colleges required their women faculty members to remain single, on the grounds that a woman could not carry on two full-time professions at once. According to Schiebinger, "Being a scientist and a wife and a mother is a burden in society that expects women more often than men to put family ahead of career." (p.&nbsp;93).<ref>{{cite book| last=Schiebinger |first=Londa| title=Has Feminism Changed Science? : Science and Private Life| year=1999| publisher= Harvard University Press| location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |pages=92–103}}</ref>

Movements advocate [[equality of opportunity]] for both sexes and [[civil rights|equal rights]] irrespective of gender. Through a combination of [[economics|economic]] changes and the efforts of the [[feminist movement]], in recent decades women in many societies have gained access to careers beyond the traditional [[homemaker]]. Despite these advances, modern women in Western society still face challenges in the workplace as well as with the topics of education, violence, health care, politics, and motherhood, and others. [[Sexism]] can be a main concern and barrier for women almost anywhere, though its forms, perception, and gravity vary between societies and social classes.

The [[Gender Parity Index]] in school enrollment varies by country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=School enrollment, gender parity index |url=https://genderdata.worldbank.org/indicators/se-enr/?education=Primary |access-date=2023-06-22 |website=World Bank Gender Data Portal}}</ref> The [[gender gaps in mathematics and reading]] show girls tend to have higher reading skills. The [[gender pay gap]] varies between countries and age groups.<ref name="p218">{{cite web | title=Gender pay gap statistics | website=Eurostat | url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Gender_pay_gap_statistics | access-date=30 March 2025}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Further|Women in Buddhism|Women in Christianity|Women in Hinduism|Women in Islam|Women in Judaism|Women in Mormonism|Women in Shinto|Women in Sikhism|Women in Zoroastrianism}}
Particular religious doctrines have specific stipulations relating to [[gender roles]], social and private interaction between the sexes, appropriate dressing attire for women, and various other issues affecting women and their position in society. In many countries, these religious teachings influence the [[criminal law]], or the [[family law]] of those jurisdictions (see [[Sharia law]], for example). The relation between religion, law and gender equality has been discussed by international organizations.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2013/10/454152 |title=Harmful practices against women and girls can never be justified by religion – UN expert |publisher=UN News |date=29 October 2013 |access-date=12 May 2023}}</ref>

=== Violence against women ===
{{main|Violence against women}}
[[File:Campaign road sign against female genital mutilation (cropped).jpg|thumb|A campaign against [[female genital mutilation]]&nbsp;– a road sign near [[Kapchorwa]], [[Uganda]]|alt=Roadside billboard saying "Stop female circumcision. It's dangerous to Women's health. Family Planning Association of Uganda." Displaying a crossed out razorblade and knife on the left.]]

The [[United Nations|UN]] [[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women]] defines "violence against women" as:<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm |title=A/RES/48/104. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women |publisher=Un.org |access-date=2014-04-19}}</ref>

{{blockquote|...any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.}}

It identifies three forms of such violence: that which occurs ''in the family'', that which occurs ''within the general community'', and that which is perpetrated or condoned ''by the State''. It also states that "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women".<ref>{{cite web| author= United Nations General Assembly |url= http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm |title=A/RES/48/104 – Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women&nbsp;– UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements |publisher=UN Documents |access-date=2014-04-19}}</ref>

Violence against women remains a widespread problem, fueled, especially outside the West, by patriarchal social values, lack of adequate laws, and lack of enforcement of existing laws. Social norms that exist in many parts of the world hinder progress towards protecting women from violence. For example, according to surveys by [[UNICEF]], the percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances is as high as 90% in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Jordan]], 87% in [[Mali]], 86% in [[Guinea]] and [[Timor-Leste]], 81% in [[Laos]], and 80% in the [[Central African Republic]].<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.childinfo.org/attitudes_data.php |title= Statistics by Area&nbsp;– Attitudes towards wife-beating&nbsp;– Statistical table |publisher=Childinfo.org |access-date=2014-04-19 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140704112113/http://www.childinfo.org/attitudes_data.php |archive-date=2014-07-04 |url-status=dead}}</ref> A 2010 survey conducted by the [[Pew Research Center]] found that [[stoning]] as a punishment for [[adultery]] was supported by 82% of respondents in [[Egypt]] and [[Pakistan]], 70% in [[Jordan]], 56% [[Nigeria]], and 42% in [[Indonesia]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.pewglobal.org/2010/12/02/muslims-around-the-world-divided-on-hamas-and-hezbollah/ |title=Muslim Publics Divided on Hamas and Hezbollah |work=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |date=2 December 2010 |publisher=Pewglobal.org |access-date=2014-04-19}}</ref>

Specific forms of violence that affect women include [[female genital mutilation]], [[sex trafficking]], [[forced prostitution]], [[forced marriage]], [[rape]], [[sexual harassment]], [[honor killings]], [[acid throwing]], and [[dowry death|dowry related violence]]. Laws and policies on violence against women vary by jurisdiction. In the [[European Union]], sexual harassment and human trafficking are subject to [[Directive (European Union)|directives]].<ref>Directive 2002/73/EC&nbsp;– equal treatment of 23 September 2002 amending Council Directive 76/207/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1976L0207:20021005:EN:PDF]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:101:0001:0011:EN:PDF|title=Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims, and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JH}}</ref> Governments can be complicit in violence against women, such as when stoning is used as a legal punishment, mostly for women accused of adultery.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Batha |first1=Emma |title=Special report: The punishment was death by stoning. The crime? Having a mobile phone |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/special-report-punishment-was-death-stoning-crime-having-mobile-phone-8846585.html |access-date=13 May 2021 |work=The Independent |date=28 September 2013}}</ref> 

There have also been many forms of violence against women which have been prevalent historically, notably the [[Witch-hunt|burning of witches]], the sacrifice of [[widows]] (such as [[Sati (practice)|sati]]) and [[foot binding]]. The prosecution of women accused of [[witchcraft]] has a long tradition; for example, during the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries), [[witch trials in the early modern period|witch trials]] were common in Europe and in the European colonies in North America. Today, there remain regions of the world (such as parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, rural North India, and Papua New Guinea) where belief in witchcraft is held by many people, and women accused of being witches are subjected to serious violence.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1129&context=djcil#H2N1 |title=Conflict Between State Legal Norms and Norms Underlying Popular Beliefs: Witchcraft In Africa As A Case Study* |last=Diwan |first=Mohammed A. |journal=Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law |volume=14 |date=2004 |pages=351–387 |access-date=11 August 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ally |first=Yaseen |date=June 2009 |title=Witch hunts in modern South Africa: an under-represented facet of gender-based violence |url=http://www.mrc.ac.za/crime/witchhunts.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506125641/http://www.mrc.ac.za/crime/witchhunts.pdf |archive-date=2017-05-06 |access-date=2014-01-08 |website=South African Medical Research Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21363894 | work=BBC News | title=Woman burned alive for 'sorcery' in Papua New Guinea | date=7 February 2013}}</ref> In addition, there are also countries which have criminal legislation against the practice of witchcraft. In [[Saudi Arabia]], witchcraft remains a crime [[punishable by death]], and in 2011 the country beheaded a woman for 'witchcraft and sorcery'.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.amnesty.org/en/news/saudi-arabia-beheading-sorcery-shocking-2011-12-12 |title=Saudi Arabia: Beheading for 'sorcery' shocking &#124; Amnesty International |publisher=Amnesty.org |access-date=2014-04-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url= https://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/13/world/meast/saudi-arabia-beheading/ | work=CNN.com | title=Saudi woman beheaded for 'witchcraft and sorcery'| date=14 December 2011}}</ref>

It is also the case that certain forms of violence against women have been recognized as criminal offences only during recent decades, and are not universally prohibited, in that many countries continue to allow them. This is especially the case with [[marital rape]].<ref>In 2006, the UN Secretary-General's ''In-depth study on all forms of violence against women'' found that (p. 113): "Marital rape may be prosecuted in at least 104 States. Of these, 32 have made marital rape a specific criminal offence, while the remaining 74 do not exempt marital rape from general rape provisions. Marital rape is not a prosecutable offence in at least 53 States. Four States criminalize marital rape only when the spouses are judicially separated. Four States are considering legislation that would allow marital rape to be prosecuted."[https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/vaw/publications/English%20Study.pdf]</ref><ref>In [[England and Wales]], marital rape was made illegal in 1991. The views of Sir Matthew Hale, a 17th-century jurist, published in ''The History of the Pleas of the Crown (1736)'', stated that a husband cannot be guilty of the rape of his wife because the wife "''hath given up herself in this kind to her husband, which she cannot retract''"; in England and Wales this would remain law for more than 250 years, until it was abolished by the [[Appellate Committee of the House of Lords]], [http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1991/12.html in the case of ''R v R'' in 1991.]</ref> In the Western World, there has been a trend towards ensuring [[gender equality]] within [[marriage]] and prosecuting [[domestic violence]], but in many parts of the world women still lose significant legal rights when entering a marriage.<ref>For example, in [[Yemen]], marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.[http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Yemen%27s%20darkside-discrimination_Yemen_HRC101.pdf] In [[Iraq]] husbands have a legal right to "punish" their wives. The criminal code states at Paragraph 41 that there is no crime if an act is committed while exercising a legal right; examples of legal rights include: "The punishment of a wife by her husband, the disciplining by parents and teachers of children under their authority within certain limits prescribed by law or by custom".{{cite web |title=The Penal Code – With Amendments |url=http://law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021100954/http://law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf |archive-date=2012-10-21 |access-date=2012-10-21 |publisher=Iraqi Ministry of Justice}} In the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] the Family Code states that the husband is the head of the household; the wife owes her obedience to her husband; a wife has to live with her husband wherever he chooses to live; and wives must have their husbands' authorization to bring a case in court or to initiate other legal proceedings.[https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/drc/Congo0602-09.htm]</ref>

Sexual violence against women greatly increases during times of [[war]] and [[armed conflict]], during [[military occupation]], or [[ethnic conflict]]s; most often in the form of [[war rape]] and [[sexual slavery]]. Contemporary examples of sexual violence during war include [[rape during the Armenian Genocide]], [[rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War]], [[rape in the Bosnian War]], [[rape during the Rwandan genocide]], and [[War rape#Democratic Republic of the Congo|rape during Second Congo War]]. In Colombia, the armed conflict has also resulted in increased sexual violence against women.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/news/colombian-authorities-fail-stop-or-punish-sexual-violence-against-women-2012-10-04 |title=Colombian authorities fail to stop or punish sexual violence against women &#124; Amnesty International |publisher=Amnesty.org |access-date=2014-04-19}}</ref> The most recent case was the [[sexual jihad]] done by [[ISIL]] where 5000–7000 Yazidi and Christian girls and children were sold into sexual slavery during the [[Sexual violence in the Iraqi insurgency|genocide and rape of Yazidi and Christian women]], some of whom jumped to their death from [[Mount Sinjar]], as described in a witness statement.<ref name=rudaw-26082014>{{cite news|last=Ahmed|first=Havidar|title=The Yezidi Exodus, Girls Raped by ISIS Jump to their Death on Mount Shingal|date=14 August 2014|url=http://rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/140820142|publisher=[[Rudaw Media Network]]|access-date=26 August 2014}}</ref>