Editing Wisdom (section)

== Psychological perspectives ==
{{Main|Expert}}
{{Further|Developmental psychology|personality psychology}}

The three major psychological categories for wisdom are ''personality'', ''development'', and ''expertise''.<ref>{{cite journal
| last1 = Baltes
| first1 = Paul B.
| last2 = Staudinger
| first2 = Ursula M.
| date = 2000
| title = Wisdom: A Metaheuristic (Pragmatic) to Orchestrate Mind and Virtue Toward Excellence
| url = https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_2102711/component/file_2102710/content
| journal = American Psychologist
| volume = 55
| issue = 1
| pages = 122–136
| doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122
| pmid = 11392856
| access-date = 27 July 2024
| quote = Theoretical and empirical work on explicit psychological theories of wisdom can be roughly divided into three groups: (a) the conceptualization of wisdom as a personal characteristic or constellation of personality dispositions (e.g., Erikson, 1959; McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1998), (b) the conceptualization of wisdom in the neo-Piagetian tradition of postformal and dialectical thought (e.g., Alex ander & Langer, 1990; Labouvie-Vief, 1990), and (c) the conceptualization of wisdom as an expert system dealing with the meaning and conduct of life (P. Baltes & Smith, 1990; Dittmann-Kohli & Baltes, 1990; Staudinger & Baltes, 1994).| hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4
| hdl-access = free
}}</ref>

Psychologists have begun to gather data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sternberg|first=R. J.|year=1985|title=Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=49|issue=3 |pages=607–662|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.49.3.607 }}</ref> Initial analyses indicate that although "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality, and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is an expertise in dealing with difficult questions of life and adaptation to the complex requirements."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brown | first1 = S. C. | last2 = Greene | first2 = J. A. | year = 2006 | title = The Wisdom Development Scale: Translating the conceptual to the concrete | url = http://www.colgate.edu/portaldata/imagegallerywww/4119/ImageGallery/JCSD_WDS.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170705112332/http://www.colgate.edu/portaldata/imagegallerywww/4119/ImageGallery/JCSD_WDS.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 5 July 2017 | journal = Journal of College Student Development | volume = 47 | pages = 1–19 | doi=10.1353/csd.2006.0002| citeseerx = 10.1.1.502.7954 | s2cid = 35496789 }}</ref>

The field of psychology has also developed explicit theories and empirical research on the psychological processes underlying wisdom.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bluck|first1=Susan|last2=Glück|first2=Judith |title=A handbook of wisdom: Psychological perspectives|editor-first1=Robert|editor-last1=Sternberg|editor-first2=Jennifer|editor-last2=Jordan|pages= 84–109|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2005|location=New York|doi= 10.1017/cbo9780511610486.005|chapter=From the Inside Out: People's Implicit Theories of Wisdom|isbn= 9780511610486}}</ref><ref name="Staudinger-2011">{{cite journal
| last1 = Staudinger 
| first1 = U.M. 
| last2 = Glück
| first2 = J. 
| year = 2011 
| title = Psychological wisdom research: Commonalities and differences in a growing field. 
| journal = Annual Review of Psychology 
| volume = 62 
| pages = 215–241 
| doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131659 
| pmid = 20822439 }}</ref> Opinions on the psychological definition of wisdom vary,<ref name="Staudinger-2011"/> but there is some consensus that critical to wisdom are certain [[Metacognition|meta-cognitive]] processes that afford life reflection and judgment about critical life matters.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Baltes|first1=Paul B.|last2=Staudinger|first2=Ursula M.|year=2000|title=Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence|journal=American Psychologist|volume=55|issue=1|pages=122–136|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122|pmid=11392856|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Grossmann-2017a">{{cite journal
| last1 = Grossmann
| first1 = Igor 
| date = 2017
| title = Wisdom in Context
| url = http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pps
| journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science
| volume = 12
| issue = 2
| pages = 233–257
| doi = 10.1177/1745691616672066
| pmid = 28346113
| s2cid = 26818408
| access-date = 18 July 2024
| quote = Compromise [...] Intellectual humility [...] Recognition of uncertainty and change [...] Others' perspectives / broader contexts| url-access = subscription
}}</ref> These processes include recognizing the limits of one's own knowledge, acknowledging uncertainty and change, attention to context and the bigger picture, and integrating different perspectives of a situation.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vuong|first1=Quan-Hoang|title=The Kingfisher Story Collection|date=2022|publisher=Amazon Digital Services|isbn=979-8353946595}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> Cognitive scientists suggest that wisdom requires coordinating such reasoning processes for insight into managing one's life.<ref>{{cite web|last=Vervaeke|first=John|title=The Cognitive Science of Wisdom|date=4 May 2012 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ti4Kj8TcEgk| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/ti4Kj8TcEgk| archive-date=7 November 2021 | url-status=live|publisher=Mind Matters Conference|access-date=13 April 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Reasoning of this sort is both theoretically and empirically distinct from general (fluid or crystallized) intelligence.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sternberg|first=Robert J.|author-link=Robert Sternberg|title=Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2003|location=New York|isbn=978-0-521-80238-3 }}</ref> Researchers have shown empirically that wise reasoning is distinct from [[IQ]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Na | first2 = J. | last3 = Varnum | first3 = M.E. | last4 = Park | first4 = D.C. | last5 =Kitayama | first5 = S. | last6 = Nisbett | first6 = R.E. | year = 2010 | title = Reasoning about social conflicts improves into old age. | url = https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/early/2010/03/23/1001715107.full.pdf | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume = 107 | issue = 16 | pages = 7246–7250 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.7246G | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1001715107 | pmid = 20368436 | pmc = 2867718 | doi-access = free }}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Staudinger| first1 = U.M. | last2 = Lopez| first2 = D.F | last3 = Baltes| first3 = P.B. | year = 1997 | title = The psychometric location of wisdom-related performance: Intelligence, personality, and more? | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 23 | issue = 11 | pages = 1200–1214 | doi = 10.1177/01461672972311007 | s2cid = 145148320}} }}</ref>

Baltes and colleagues defined wisdom as "the ability to deal with the contradictions of a specific situation and to assess the consequences of an action for themselves and for others. It is achieved when in a concrete situation, a balance between intrapersonal, interpersonal and institutional interests can be prepared".<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|first1=P.B.|last1=Baltes|first2=J.|last2=Glück|first3=U.|last3=Kunzmann|chapter=Wisdom: Its structure and function in regulating successful life span development|title=Handbook of Positive Psychology|editor-first1=C.R.|editor-last1=Snyder|editor-first2=S.J.|editor-last2=Lopez|pages=327–347|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
|2={{cite journal | pmc = 2937249 | pmid=20233730 | doi=10.1093/geront/gnq022 | volume=50 | issue=5 | title=Expert consensus on characteristics of wisdom: a Delphi method study | date=October 2010 | journal=Gerontologist | pages=668–680 | last1 = Jeste | first1 = D.V. | last2 = Ardelt | first2 = M. | last3 = Blazer | first3 = D. | last4 = Kraemer | first4 = H.C. | last5 = Vaillant | first5 = G. | last6 = Meeks | first6 = T.W.}} }}</ref> Balance appears to be a critical criterion of wisdom. Empirical research provides some support for this idea, showing that wisdom-related reasoning is associated with achieving balance between intrapersonal and interpersonal interests when facing personal life challenges, and when setting goals for managing interpersonal conflicts.<ref name="Brienza-2017">{{cite journal 
| last1 = Brienza
| first1 = J.P. 
| last2 = Kung
| first2 = F.Y.H. 
| last3 = Santos
| first3 = H. 
| last4 = Bobocel
| first4 = D.R. 
| last5 = Grossmann
| first5 = I. 
|year = 2017 
| title = Wisdom, Bias, and Balance: Toward a Process-Sensitive Measurement of Wisdom-Related Cognition 
| journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 
| volume = 115 
| issue = 6 
| pages = 1093–1126 
| pmid = 28933874 
| doi = 10.1037/pspp0000171 
| s2cid = 29052539 
| url = https://osf.io/p25c2/download }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Brienza| first2 = J.P. | last3 = Bobocel| first3 = D.R.|year = 2017 | title = Wise deliberation sustains cooperation | journal = Nature Human Behaviour | volume = 1 | issue = 3 | page = 0061 | doi = 10.1038/s41562-017-0061 | s2cid = 38342840 }}</ref>

Researchers also explore the role of emotions in wisdom.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kunzmann |first1=U. |last2=Glück |first2=J. |date=2019 |chapter=Wisdom and emotion |editor1-first=R. J. |editor1-last=Sternberg |editor2-first=J. |editor2-last=Glück |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Wisdom |pages=575–601 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781108568272.027|isbn=978-1-108-56827-2 }}</ref> Most agree that emotions and emotion regulation are key to effectively managing the kinds of complex and arousing situations that most call for wisdom. Much empirical research has focused on the cognitive or meta-cognitive aspects of wisdom, assuming that an ability to reason through difficult situations is paramount. So although emotions likely play a role in how wisdom plays out in real events (and in reflecting on past events), empirical studies were late to develop on how emotions affect a person's ability to deal wisely with complex events. One study found a positive relationship between diversity of emotional experience and wise reasoning, irrespective of emotional intensity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=Igor|last2=Oakes|first2=Harrison|last3=Santos|first3=Henri C.|year=2018|title=Wise Reasoning Benefits from Emodiversity, Irrespective of Emotional Intensity.|url=https://psyarxiv.com/jy5em/download|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=148|issue=5|pages=805–823|doi=10.1037/xge0000543|pmid=30688474|s2cid=59306284|via=PsyArXiv}}</ref>

=== Gestalt therapy===
{{Main|Gestalt therapy}}

A ''wise-person fantasy'' is an awareness intervention, where one poses a question, thinks on it for a few minutes, and then [[Role-playing|role-plays]] a fantasized wise person to answer that same question.<ref>{{cite book
| last1 = Henderson
| first1 = D.
| last2 = Thompson
| first2 = C.
| date = 2016
| title = Counseling Children
| edition = 9
| publisher = Cengage Learning
| page = 229
| isbn = 978-1-285-46454-1}}</ref>

=== Grossman ===

Grossmann and colleagues summarized prior psychological literature to conclude that wisdom involves certain cognitive processes that afford [[impartiality|unbiased]], sound [[judgment]] in the face of ill-defined life situations:
# intellectual humility, or recognition of limits of own knowledge
# appreciation of perspectives broader than the issue at hand
# sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations
# compromise or integration of different perspectives<ref name="Grossmann-2017b">{{Cite journal|title=Wisdom and how to cultivate it: Review of emerging evidence for a constructivist model of wise thinking|last=Grossmann|first=Igor|journal=European Pyschologist|volume=22|issue=4|date=October 2017|doi=10.1027/1016-9040/a000302}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=Henri C.|last2=Huynh|first2=Alex C.|last3=Grossmann|first3=Igor|year=2017|title=Wisdom in a complex world: A situated account of wise reasoning and its development|journal=Social and Personality Psychology Compass|volume=11|issue=10|pages=e12341|doi=10.1111/spc3.12341|issn=1751-9004|url=https://psyarxiv.com/pdtxv/ }}</ref>
Grossmann found that [[Illeism|habitually speaking and thinking of oneself in the third person]] increases these characteristics, which means that such a habit makes a person wiser.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web|first=David|last=Robson|url=https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20230411-illeism-the-ancient-trick-to-help-you-think-more-wisely |title=Illeism: The ancient trick to help you think more wisely |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=14 April 2023 |access-date=4 July 2023}}
|2={{cite web|first=David|last=Robson|url=https://aeon.co/ideas/why-speaking-to-yourself-in-the-third-person-makes-you-wiser |title=Why speaking to yourself in the third person makes you wiser |publisher=[[Aeon (magazine)|Aeon]] |date=7 August 2019 |access-date=10 July 2020}} }}</ref> Grossmann says contextual factors{{snd}}such as culture, experiences, and social situations{{snd}}influence the understanding, development, and propensity of wisdom, with implications for training and educational practice.<ref name="Grossmann-2017a" /><ref name="Grossmann-2017b" /> These contextual factors are the focus of continuing research. For instance, Grossmann and Kross identified a phenomenon they called "the Solomon's paradox": that people reflect more wisely on other people's problems than on their own. (It is named after [[Solomon|King Solomon]], who had legendary sagacity when making judgments about other people's dilemmas but lacked insight when it came to important decisions in his own life.)<ref name="Grossmann-2017c" />

=== Measuring wisdom ===

A researcher will measure wisdom differently depending on their theoretical position about the nature of wisdom. For example, some view wisdom as a stable personality trait, others as a context-bound process.<ref name="Grossmann-2017d">{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I.|year = 2017 | title = Wisdom in context | journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 233–257| doi = 10.1177/1745691616672066| pmid = 28346113| s2cid = 26818408}}</ref> Those wedded to the former approach often use single-shot questionnaires, which are prone to {{clarify|reason=in what way?|text=biased|date=August 2023}} responses,<ref name="Brienza-2017"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Taylor| first1 = M. | last2 = Bates| first2 = G. | last3 = Webster| first3 = J.D. |year = 2011 | title = Comparing the psychometric properties of two measures of wisdom: Predicting forgiveness and psychological well-being with the Self-Assessed Wisdom Scale (SAWS) and the Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (3D-WS). | journal = Experimental Aging Research | volume = 37| issue = 2 | pages = 129–141 | doi = 10.1080/0361073X.2011.554508 | pmid = 21424954 | s2cid = 205555336 }}</ref> something that is antithetical to the wisdom construct<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Glück| first1 = J. | last2 = König| first2 = S. | last3 = Naschenweng| first3 = K. | last4 = Redzanowski| first4 = U. | last5 = Dorner-Hörig| first5 = L. | last6 = Straßer|first6 = I | last7 = Wiedermann|  first7 = W |year = 2013 | title = How to measure wisdom: Content, reliability, and validity of five measures. | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 4| page = 405 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00405 | pmid = 23874310 | pmc = 3709094 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and fails to study wisdom in the contexts where it is most relevant: complex life challenges. In contrast, researchers who prefer the latter approach measure wisdom-related features of cognition, motivation, and emotion in the context of a specific situation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baltes| first1 = P.B. | last2 = Staudinger| first2 = U. |year = 2000 | title = Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence. | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 55| issue = 1 | pages = 122–136 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122 | pmid = 11392856 | hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4 | url = http://edoc.mpg.de/191074 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Grossmann-2017d"/> Such state-level measures provide less-biased responses as well as greater power in explaining meaningful psychological processes.<ref name="Brienza-2017"/> Also, a focus on the situation allows wisdom researchers to develop a fuller understanding of the role of context in producing wisdom.<ref name="Grossmann-2017d"/> For example, studies have shown evidence of cross-cultural<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=I.|last2=Karasawa|first2=M.|last3=Izumi|first3=S.|last4=Na|first4=J.|last5=Varnum|first5=M.E.|last6=Kitayama|first6=S|last7=Nisbett|first7=R.E|year=2012|title=Aging and wisdom: Culture matters.|journal=Psychological Science|volume=23|issue=10|pages=1059–1066|doi=10.1177/0956797612446025|pmid=22933459|hdl=11244/25191|s2cid=4829751|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and within-cultural variability,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brienza|first1=Justin P.|last2=Grossmann|first2=Igor|title=Social class and wise reasoning about interpersonal conflicts across regions, persons and situations|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=284|issue=1869|pages=1869|doi=10.1098/rspb.2017.1870|pmid=29263284|pmc=5745406|year=2017}}</ref> and systematic variability in reasoning wisely across contexts<ref name="Brienza-2017"/><ref name="Grossmann-2017c">{{cite journal|last1=Grossmann|first1=Igor|last2=Kross|first2=Ethan|year=2017|title=Exploring Solomon's Paradox: Self-distancing eliminates the self-other asymmetry in wise reasoning about close relationships in younger and older adults.|journal=Psychological Science|volume=25|issue=8|pages=1571–1580|doi=10.1177/0956797614535400|pmid=24916084|s2cid=3539860}}</ref> and in daily life.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Grossmann| first1 = I. | last2 = Gerlach| first2 = T.M. | last3 = Denissen| first3 = J.J. |year = 2016 | title = Wise reasoning in the face of everyday life challenges. | journal = Social Psychological and Personality Science | volume = 7| issue = 7 | pages = 611–622 | doi = 10.1177/1948550616652206 | s2cid = 148246126 }}</ref>

Many, but not all, studies find that adults' self-ratings of perspective and wisdom do not depend on age.<ref>{{cite book|last=Harter|first=Andrew C.|title=Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification|editor=Peterson, Christopher |editor2=[[Martin Seligman|Seligman, Martin E. P.]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|chapter=Perspective [Wisdom]|year=2004|location=Oxford|pages=181–196|isbn=978-0-19-516701-6|title-link=Character Strengths and Virtues (book)}}</ref><ref name="Orwoll-1990">{{cite book|last1=Orwoll|first1=L.|last2=Perlmutter|first2=M. |title=Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development|editor-first=R. J.|editor-last= Sternberg|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|year=1990|pages=160–177|isbn=978-0-521-36718-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Serenko|first1=A.| year=2024|title=Practical wisdom in the workplace: Conceptualization, instrument development, and predictive power|url=https://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Practical_Wisdom.pdf |journal=Journal of Knowledge Management |volume=28|issue=7 |pages=2092–2119 |doi=10.1108/JKM-08-2023-0713}}</ref> This conflicts with the popular notion that wisdom increases with age.<ref name="Orwoll-1990" /> The answer to whether age and wisdom correlate depends on how one defines wisdom and one's experimental technique. The answer to this question also depends on the domain studied, and the role of experience in that domain, with some contexts favoring older adults, others favoring younger adults, and some not differentiating age groups.<ref name="Grossmann-2017d"/> Rigorous longitudinal work is needed to answer this question, while most studies rely on cross-sectional observations.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meacham|first=J. A.|year=1990|chapter=The loss of wisdom|editor-first=R. J.|editor-last=Sternberg|title=Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=181, 211}}</ref>

The Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index<ref>{{cite web |title=Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index |website=U.C. San Diego Health Sciences |url=https://survey.alchemer.com/s3/5991949/Jeste-Thomas-Wisdom-Index}}</ref> is based on a 28-question survey (SD-WISE-28) created by researchers at the [[University of California San Diego]] to determine how wise a person is. In 2021 [[Dilip V. Jeste|Dr. Dilip V. Jeste]] and his colleagues created a 7-question survey (SD-WISE-7) testing seven components: acceptance of diverse perspectives, [[Decision-making|decisiveness]], [[emotional regulation]], [[prosocial behavior]]s, [[self-reflection]], social advising, and (to a lesser degree) [[spirituality]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The 7-Item Wisdom Scale: A Fast Way to See If You're Wise |author=Christopher Bergland |website=Psychology Today |date=5 December 2021 |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-athletes-way/202112/fast-way-see-if-youre-wise}}</ref>

=== Archetypal psychology ===
{{Main|Wise Old Man and Wise Old Woman}}
{{Broader|Jungian archetypes}}

The wise old person is an unconscious [[Attitude (psychology)|attitude]] concerning [[nature]] and the [[collective unconscious]].<ref>{{cite book
| last = Jacoby
| first = Mario
|translator-last1= Gubitz
|translator-first1= Myron
| date = 1985
| title = Individuation and Narcissism: The Psychology of the Self in Jung and Kohut
| publisher = Routledge
| pages = 134–135
| isbn = 0-415-06464-3
| quote = The figures representing the archetype of the 'Wise Old Man' or of the 'Magna Mater' are equivalent to the mana personality; they are both personifications of what could be called the 'wisdom in nature' or the Jungian self with its 'unconscious knowledge'. [...] From a Jungian point of view, we could say that a conscious relationship to the 'Wise Old Man or Woman' in ourselves and to his or her knowledge concerning the infinite is an essential part of an attitude that deserves being called 'wise'.}}</ref>

[[Star Wars]] is a monomyth that uses [[archetypal psychology]], specifically [[Joseph Campbell]]'s [[The Hero with a Thousand Faces|The Hero of a Thousand Faces]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Joseph|last=Campbell|title=The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work|edition=3rd|editor-first=Phil|editor-last=Cousineau|location=Novato, California|publisher=New World Library|year=2003|pages=186–187}}</ref> The character [[Yoda|Master Yoda]] from the films evokes the [[trope (cinema)|trope]] of the [[wise old man]],<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book|title=Virtual orientalism: Asian religions and American popular culture|last=Iwamura|first= Jane Naomi|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|oclc=1090089521}}
|2={{Cite book|title=Positive psychology at the movies: using films to build character strengths and well-being|last=Niemiec|first= Ryan M.|isbn=9780889374430|oclc=844533648|year=2014|publisher=Hogrefe }} }}</ref> and he is frequently quoted, analogously to Chinese thinkers or Eastern sages in general.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/life/star-wars-who-said-it-yoda-or-a-jewish-sage-1.5436169|url-access=subscription|title=Star Wars: Who Said It? Yoda or a Jewish Sage|work=Haaretz|date=12 September 2017}}
|2={{cite web|url=https://www.inc.com/kevin-daum/may-the-fourth-be-with-you-the-wisdom-of-star-wars-in-40-iconic-quotes.html|title=May the Fourth Be With You: the Wisdom of Star Wars in 40 Iconic Quotes|last=Daum|first=Kevin|date=4 May 2017|website=Inc.com|access-date=16 August 2019}} }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Tao of Yoda: based upon the Tao Te Ching by Lao Tzu|last=Kreger|first=D. W.|year=2013|publisher=Windham Everitt|isbn=9780983309925|oclc=861507203}}</ref>

===Theories and models===
{{prose|section|date=February 2025}}
*''The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm'' is an expertise model of life wisdom.<ref>{{cite journal
| last1 = Baltes
| first1 = Paul B.
| last2 = Smith
| first2 = Jacqui
| date = 2008
| title = The Fascination of Wisdom: Its Nature, Ontogeny, and Function
| url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/40212228
| journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science
| volume = 3
| issue = 1
| pages = 56–64
| doi = 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00062.x
| jstor = 40212228
| pmid = 26158670
| access-date = 27 July 2024
| quote = The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm  [...] combines a broad definition of wisdom as excellence in mind and virtue with a specific characterization of wisdom as an expert knowledge system dealing with the conduct and understanding of life. We called this domain of knowledge the ''fundamental pragmatics of life'' [...] ''life planning'' [...] ''life management'' [...] and ''life review''[.]| url-access = subscription
}}</ref><ref name="Zhang-2023">{{cite journal
| last1 = Zhang
| first1 = K.
| last2 = Shi
| first2 = J.
| last3 = Wang
| first3 = F.
| date = 2023
| title = Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns
| journal = Current Psychology
| volume = 42
| issue = 18
| pages = 15030–15051
| doi = 10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6
| pmid = 35153458
|quote = Since wisdom research in psychology began in the late 1970s (Clayton, 1975), many scientific theories about wisdom have emerged, including: (a) the Berlin wisdom paradigm (Baltes & Kunzmann, 2004; Baltes & Smith, 2008; Baltes & Staudinger, 1993, 2000; Scheibe et al., 2007), (b) the balance theory of wisdom (Sternberg, 1998, 2018), (c) the self-transcendence wisdom theory (Levenson et al., 2005), (d) the three-dimensional wisdom theory (Ardelt, 2003; Thomas et al., 2015), (e) the H.E.R.O.(E.) model of wisdom (Webster, 2003; Webster et al., 2014, 2017), (f) the process view of wisdom (Yang, 2008, 2013, 2016, 2017), and (g) the integrating virtue and wit theory of wisdom (Chen & Wang, 2013; Wang et al., 2019, pp. 376–378; Wang & Zheng, 2012, 2014, 2015).| pmc = 8817649
}}</ref>
*''The Balance Theory of Wisdom''<ref name="Zhang-2023"/>
*''The Self-transcendence Wisdom Theory''<ref name="Zhang-2023"/>
*''The Three-dimensional Wisdom Theory''<ref name="Zhang-2023"/>
*''The H.E.R.O.(E.) Model of Wisdom''<ref name="Zhang-2023"/>
*''The Process View of Wisdom''<ref name="Zhang-2023"/>
*''The Integrating Virtue and Wit Theory of Wisdom''<ref name="Zhang-2023"/>