Editing Tragedy of the commons (section)

==Examples==
More general examples (some alluded to by Hardin) of potential and actual tragedies include:

[[File:Lacanja burn.JPG|thumb|right|Clearing rainforest for agriculture in southern Mexico]]
* '''Physical resources'''
** Uncontrolled human [[population growth]] leading to [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]].<ref name="hardin6822"/>
** [[Atmosphere]]: through the release of pollution that leads to [[ozone depletion]], [[global warming]], [[ocean acidification]] (by way of increased atmospheric {{CO2}} being absorbed by the sea), and [[particulate pollution]].<ref>{{Citation|title=Global Warming and Ocean Acidification|date=2020-07-09|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781108395021.008|work=Understanding Environmental Pollution|pages=133–165|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781108395021.008|isbn=978-1-108-39502-1|s2cid=241103265|access-date=2021-05-24}}</ref>
** [[Light pollution]]: with the loss of the night sky for research and cultural significance, affected human, flora and fauna health, nuisance, trespass and the loss of enjoyment or function of private property.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://theecologist.org/2010/aug/31/dark-nights-global-effort-tackle-light-pollution |title=Dark nights: the global effort to tackle light pollution |website=The Ecologist |language=en |access-date=2020-02-24|first=Carrie |last=Madren|date= August 31, 2010}}</ref>
** [[Water]]: [[Water pollution]], [[Water security|water crisis]] of over-extraction of groundwater and wasting water due to [[Irrigation#Technical challenges|overirrigation]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/02508060008686794 |title = Appraisal and Assessment of World Water Resources|year = 2000|last1 = Shiklomanov|first1 = Igor A.|s2cid = 4936257|journal = Water International|volume = 25|issue=1|pages = 11–32| bibcode=2000WatIn..25...11S }}</ref>
** [[Forests]]: Frontier [[logging]] of [[old growth forest]] and [[slash and burn]].<ref>Wilson, E.O., 2002, ''The Future of Life'', Vintage {{ISBN|0-679-76811-4}}</ref>
** [[Energy resources]] and [[climate]]: Environmental residue of mining and drilling, burning of [[fossil fuels]] and consequential [[global warming]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Adler|first=Linus|title=Fossil Fuels|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452218564.n285|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Global Warming & Climate Change|year=2012|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|publisher=Sage Publications, Inc.|doi=10.4135/9781452218564.n285|isbn=978-1-4129-9261-9|access-date=2021-05-24}}</ref>
** [[Animal]]s: [[Habitat destruction]] and [[poaching]] leading to the [[Holocene extinction event|Holocene mass extinction]].<ref>Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin, 1996, ''The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind'', Anchor, {{ISBN|0-385-46809-1}}</ref>
** [[Oceans]]: [[Overfishing]]<ref>Hogan, C. Michael (2014). [https://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Overfishing ''Overfishing'']. [[Encyclopedia of Earth]]. National Council for Science and the Environment. eds. Sidney Draggan and C. Cleveland. Washington, D.C.</ref><ref>ch 11–12. Mark Kurlansky, 1997. ''Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World'', New York: Walker, {{ISBN|0-8027-1326-2}}.</ref>
**[[Space debris]] in Earth's surrounding space leading to limited locations for new satellites and the obstruction of universal observations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50870117|title=Satellite constellations: Astronomers warn of threat to view of Universe|access-date=February 3, 2020|date=December 27, 2019|publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref>
*'''Health'''
** [[Antibiotics]]{{spaced ndash}}[[antibiotic resistance]]: Misuse of antibiotics anywhere in the world may eventually result in the global antibiotic resistance, both in human and agricultural settings, which would cause an irreparable harm to the societal health, seen as a common goods. The survey of Kieran S. O'Brien ''et al.'' stated that many consider the misuse of antibiotics to be the case  of the "tragedy of the commons", however the research results in this respect were inconclusive (as of 2014).<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1155/2014/837929 | title=Antibiotic Use as a Tragedy of the Commons: A Cross-Sectional Survey | date=2014 | last1=O'Brien | first1=Kieran S. | last2=Blumberg | first2=Seth | last3=Enanoria | first3=Wayne T. A. | last4=Ackley | first4=Sarah | last5=Sippl-Swezey | first5=Nicolas | last6=Lietman | first6=Thomas M. | journal=Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine | pages=1–8 | doi-access=free | pmid=24587818 | pmc=3920666 | hdl=10535/9382 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>
** [[Vaccines]]{{spaced ndash}}[[Herd immunity]]: Avoiding a vaccine shot and relying on the established herd immunity instead will avoid potential vaccine risks, but if everyone does this, it will diminish herd immunity and bring risk to people who cannot receive vaccines for medical reasons. The analogy with the "tragedy of the commons" is based on the interpretation that the common goods here is the pool of the vaccinated people, and avoiding vaccination diminishes it.<ref>{{Cite journal |pmc = 4815604|year = 2016|last1 = Hendrix|first1 = K. S.|last2 = Sturm|first2 = L. A.|last3 = Zimet|first3 = G. D.|last4 = Meslin|first4 = E. M.|title = Ethics and Childhood Vaccination Policy in the United States|journal = American Journal of Public Health|volume = 106|issue = 2|pages = 273–278|pmid = 26691123|doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2015.302952}} Section 3: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4815604/#__sec2title The tragedy of the (herd immunity) commons].</ref>
* '''Other'''
** [[Knowledge commons]] encompass immaterial and collectively owned goods in the information age, including, for example:
*** [[Source code]] and [[software documentation]] in software projects that can get "polluted" with messy code or inaccurate information.<ref name="reputation self-management">{{Cite book | doi=10.1145/2025113.2025166 |isbn = 978-1-4503-0443-6|chapter = Reputation-based self-management of software process artifact quality in consortium research projects|title = Proceedings of the 19th ACM SIGSOFT symposium and the 13th European conference on Foundations of software engineering – SIGSOFT/FSE '11|year = 2011|last1 = Prause|first1 = Christian R.|s2cid = 3101839|pages = 380–383|chapter-url=https://www.drprause.de/files/ESEC2011-ReputationbasedSelfmanagementQuality.pdf}}</ref>
*** Skills acquisition and training, when all parties involved [[Buck passing|pass the buck]] on implementing it.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/07/skill-reskill-prepare-for-future-of-work/|title=Skill, re-skill and re-skill again. How to keep up with the future of work|author=Stephane Kasriel|date=2017-07-31|publisher=World Economic Forum}}</ref>

===Application to evolutionary biology===
A parallel was drawn in 2006 between the tragedy of the commons and the competing behaviour of parasites that, through acting selfishly, eventually diminish or destroy their common host.<ref>{{cite journal|hdl=10400.7/88|issn=1522-0613|url=http://eao.igc.gulbenkian.pt/ENS/dionisio_evol_econ_rivalry_excludability.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927000452/http://eao.igc.gulbenkian.pt/ENS/dionisio_evol_econ_rivalry_excludability.pdf|archive-date=2007-09-27|title=The tragedy of the commons, the public goods dilemma, and the meaning of rivalry and excludability in evolutionary biology|journal=Evolutionary Ecology Research|volume=8|pages= 321–332|first1=Francisco |last1=Dionisio|first2=Isabel |last2=Gordo|year=2006}}</ref> The idea has also been applied to areas such as the evolution of [[virulence]] or [[sexual conflict]], where males may fatally harm females when competing for matings.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.tree.2006.02.013 |pmid = 16697906|title = Sex, death and tragedy|year = 2006|last1 = Rankin|first1 = Daniel J.|last2 = Kokko|first2 = Hanna|journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution|volume = 21|issue = 5|pages = 225–226| bibcode=2006TEcoE..21..225R |url=http://www.kokkonuts.org/p/Sexdeathtragedy.pdf}}</ref>

The idea of [[evolutionary suicide]], where adaptation at the level of the individual causes the whole species or population to be driven [[extinct]], can be seen as an extreme form of an evolutionary tragedy of the commons.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0706.2005.14541.x | volume=111 | issue=3 | title=Can adaptation lead to extinction? | year=2005 | journal=Oikos | pages=616–619 | last1 = Rankin | first1 = Daniel J.| bibcode=2005Oikos.111..616R | citeseerx=10.1.1.692.9713 |url=http://www.socialgenes.org/publications/Pub_Oikos1.pdf|url-status=usurped | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503175506/http://www.socialgenes.org/publications/Pub_Oikos1.pdf | archive-date=2011-05-03 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.tree.2007.07.009 |pmid = 17981363|hdl = 1975/7498|title = The tragedy of the commons in evolutionary biology|year = 2007|last1 = Rankin|first1 = Daniel J.|last2 = Bargum|first2 = Katja|last3 = Kokko|first3 = Hanna|journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution|volume = 22|issue = 12|pages = 643–651| bibcode=2007TEcoE..22..643R |url=http://www.kokkonuts.org/wp-content/uploads/Rankin_ToC.pdf}}</ref> From an evolutionary point of view, the creation of the tragedy of the commons in pathogenic microbes may provide us with advanced therapeutic methods.<ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://figshare.com/articles/The_tragedy_of_the_commons_and_prisoner/1533109 |title = The tragedy of the commons and prisoner's dilemma may improve our realization of the theory of life and provide us with advanced therapeutic ways|journal = Figshare|date = 2015|first=Ahmed|last= Ibrahim|doi = 10.6084/m9.figshare.1533109.v8| s2cid=155620390 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Oosterhout|first=Gretchen|date=2000|title=An Evolutionary Simulation of the Tragedy of the Commons|type=PhD dissertation |publisher=Portland State University |doi=10.15760/etd.1250|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Microbial ecology studies have also addressed if resource availability modulates the cooperative or competitive behaviour in bacteria populations. When resources availability is high, bacterial populations become competitive and aggressive with each other, but when environmental resources are low, they tend to be cooperative and [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hoek|first1=Tim A.|last2=Axelrod|first2=Kevin|last3=Biancalani|first3=Tommaso|last4=Yurtsev|first4=Eugene A.|last5=Liu|first5=Jinghui|last6=Gore|first6=Jeff|date=2016-08-24|title=Resource Availability Modulates the Cooperative and Competitive Nature of a Microbial Cross-Feeding Mutualism|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=14|issue=8|pages=e1002540|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002540|pmid=27557335|pmc=4996419|issn=1545-7885 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Ecological studies have hypothesised that [[Competition|competitive]] forces between animals are major in high [[carrying capacity]] zones (i.e., near the Equator), where biodiversity is higher, because of natural resources abundance. This abundance or excess of resources, causes animal populations to have [[r/K selection theory#r-selection|{{notatypo|''r''}} reproduction strategies]] (many offspring, short gestation, less parental care, and a short time until sexual maturity), so competition is affordable for populations. Also, competition could select populations to have {{notatypo|''r''}} behaviour in a [[positive feedback]] regulation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cardillo|first=Marcel|date=January 2002|title=The life-history basis of latitudinal diversity gradients: how do species traits vary from the poles to the equator?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.0021-8790.2001.00577.x|journal=Journal of Animal Ecology|volume=71|issue=1|pages=79–87|doi=10.1046/j.0021-8790.2001.00577.x|bibcode=2002JAnEc..71...79C |issn=0021-8790}}</ref>

Contrarily, in low [[carrying capacity]] zones (i.e., far from the equator), where environmental conditions are harsh, [[K strategist|''K'' strategies]] are common (longer life expectancy, produce relatively fewer offspring and tend to be altricial, requiring extensive care by parents when young) and populations tend to have cooperative or [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] behaviours. If populations have a competitive behaviour in hostile environmental conditions, they mostly are filtered out (die) by environmental selection; hence, populations in hostile conditions are selected to be cooperative.<ref>{{Cite report|last1=Moore|first1=Christopher M.|last2=Catella|first2=Samantha A.|last3=Abbott|first3=Karen C.|date=2017-02-13|title=Population dynamics of mutualism and intraspecific density dependence: howθ-logistic density dependence affects mutualistic positive feedback|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/108175|access-date=2021-10-01|page=108175|doi=10.1101/108175|s2cid=196627760}}</ref>

===Climate change===
{{main|Climate change}}
The effects of climate change have been given as a mass example of the tragedy of the commons.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ansari |first1=Shahzad |last2=Wijen |first2=Frank |last3=Gray |first3=Barbara |title=Constructing a Climate Change Logic: An Institutional Perspective on the 'Tragedy of the Commons' |journal=Organization Science |location=Providence, R.I. |date=August 2013|volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=1014–1040 |doi=10.1287/orsc.1120.0799 |s2cid=18277351 |url=https://pure.eur.nl/en/publications/153657f4-16b9-455e-bd5b-17a8f6c97d6d |hdl=1765/41166 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This perspective proposes that the earth, being the commons, has suffered a depletion of [[natural resource]]s without regard to the [[externalities]], the impact on neighboring and future populations. The collective actions of individuals, organisations, and governments continue to contribute to [[environmental degradation]]. Mitigation of the long-term impacts and [[Tipping point (sociology)|tipping point]]s require strict controls or other solution, but this may come as a loss to different industries. The sustainability of population and industry growth is the subject of climate change discussion. The global commons of environmental resource consumption or selfishness, as in the fossil fuel industry has been theorised as not realistically manageable. This is due to the crossing of irreversible thresholds of impact before the costs are entirely realised.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Katrina |last2=Adger |first2=W. Neil |last3=Cinner |first3=Joshua E |title=Moving climate change beyond the tragedy of the commons |journal=Global Environmental Change |date=January 2019 |volume=54 |pages=61–63 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.11.009 |bibcode=2019GEC....54...61B |hdl=10871/35075 |s2cid=158760049 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>