Editing Tikal (section)

==Site description==
[[File:Tikal map vector.svg|thumb|The site core]]

Tikal has been partially restored by the University of Pennsylvania and the government of Guatemala.<ref name=c97/> It was one of the largest of the Classic period Maya cities and was one of the largest cities in the [[Americas]].<ref name=c123/> The [[Maya architecture|architecture]] of the ancient city is built from [[limestone]] and includes the remains of temples that tower over {{convert|70|m|ft|sp=us}} high, large royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller [[Mesoamerican pyramids|pyramids]], palaces, residences, administrative buildings, platforms and inscribed stone monuments.<ref name="Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.1"/><ref>Drew 1999, p.183.</ref> There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the [[Mesoamerican ballgame]], including a set of 3 in the Seven Temples Plaza, a unique feature in Mesoamerica.

The limestone used for construction was local and quarried on-site. The depressions formed by the extraction of stone for building were plastered to waterproof them and were used as [[reservoir]]s, together with some waterproofed natural depressions. The main plazas were surfaced with [[stucco]] and laid at a gradient that channelled rainfall into a system of [[Aqueduct (water supply)|canals]] that fed the reservoirs.<ref name=d186>Drew 1999, p.186.</ref>

The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated {{convert|60|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}, much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. The {{convert|16|km2|sqmi|sp=us}} area around the site core has been intensively mapped;<ref name=w263/> it may have enclosed an area of some {{convert|125|km2|sqmi|sp=us}} (see below). A huge set of [[earthworks (engineering)|earthworks]] discovered by [[Dennis E. Puleston]] and Donald Callender in the 1960s rings Tikal with a {{convert|6|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} wide trench behind a [[Defensive wall|rampart]].<ref>Puleston & Callender 1967, p. 40–48.</ref> Recently, a project exploring the defensive earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought.<ref>Martínez et al. 2004, pp.639-640.</ref>

===Causeways===

By the Late Classic, a network of ''[[sacbe]]ob'' (causeways) linked various parts of the city, running for several kilometers through its urban core. These linked the Great Plaza with Temple 4 (located about {{convert|750|m|ft|lk=out|abbr=off|sp=us}} to the west) and the Temple of the Inscriptions (about {{convert|1|km|mi|sp=us}} to the southeast).<ref name=h227>Hammond 2000, p.227.</ref> These broad causeways were built of packed and plastered limestone and have been named after early explorers and archaeologists; the [[Teoberto Maler|Maler]], [[Alfred Maudslay|Maudslay]], [[Alfred Tozzer|Tozzer]] and Méndez causeways. They assisted the passage of everyday traffic during the [[Wet season|rain season]] and also served as dams.<ref name=d185/>

The '''Maler Causeway''' runs north from behind Temple I to Group H. A large [[bas-relief]] is carved onto limestone [[bedrock]] upon the course of the causeway just south of Group H. It depicts two bound captives and dates to the Late Classic.<ref name=k138>Kelly 1996, p.138.</ref>

The '''Maudsley Causeway''' runs {{convert|0.8|km|mi|sp=us}} northeast from Temple IV to Group H.<ref name=k138/>

The '''Mendez Causeway''' runs southeast from the East Plaza to Temple VI, a distance of about {{convert|1.3|km|mi|sp=us}}.<ref name=k139>Kelly 1996, p.139.</ref><ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.24">Martin & Grube 2000, p.24.</ref>

The '''Tozzer Causeway''' runs west from the Great Plaza to Temple IV.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.302.</ref>

=== Water reservoirs ===
Water reservoirs played a critical role in the development and maintenance of both Tikal and other [[Maya civilization|Maya]] cities. Though evidently serving as a body of water to draw from during the dry season and drought periods, water reservoirs also possessed a cultural and political significance.<ref name="Lucero-2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Lucero |first1=Lisa J. |last2=Gunn |first2=Joel D. |last3=Scarborough |first3=Vernon L. |date=June 2011|title=Climate Change and Classic Maya Water Management |journal=Water |language=en |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=479–494 |doi=10.3390/w3020479 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Hence, noteworthy investment was made by Maya societies into their reservoirs to ensure high water quality as well as consolidate political power.

Aside from Tikal, notable reservoirs are also present at '''[[Calakmul]]''', '''[[Caracol]]''', and '''[[Naranjo]]''', among others.<ref name="Lucero-2011"/>

==== Water quality maintenance ====
Human manipulation of the natural environment can result in unintended consequences. For instance, storing water not only can result in decreased [[water quality]] but also enable endemic diseases and pests, such as parasite-ridden flies and [[Malaria|malaria-bearing mosquitoes]], to flourish.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miksic |first=John N. |title=Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 9.1 |year=1999 |pages=167–184}}</ref> Additionally, fungal species can proliferate in improperly stored or stressed maize which can produce chemicals like [[aflatoxin]], a deadly liver [[carcinogen]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Normile |first=Dennis |date=2010-02-12 |title=Spoiling for a Fight With Mold |journal=Science |language=en |volume=327 |issue=5967 |pages=807 |doi=10.1126/science.327.5967.807 |pmid=20150484 |bibcode=2010Sci...327..807N |issn=0036-8075|doi-access=free }}</ref> However, the Maya were adept in constructing reservoirs that could guarantee high water quality. The Maya applied their knowledge of wetland biosphere ecology and ensured a balance of hydrophytic and macrophytic plants and other organisms. For example, the Maya widely adopted the dotleaf waterlily, ''[[Nymphaea ampla]],'' in their reservoirs' bodies of water. Dotleaf waterlilies, have bluish undersides that prevent passage of light and thus minimizes [[algae]] growth, inhibits evaporation, provides shade for predators of pests, removes nitrogen through their roots, and serves as an indicator of acidic conditions as water lilies cannot tolerate low pH levels;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaminsky |first=Amy K |url=https://experts.umn.edu/en/publications/water-liliesflores-del-agua-anthology-of-spanish-women-writers-fr |title=Water Lilies/Flores del agua: Anthology of Spanish Women Writers from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century |date=1995 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pearce |first=Jill J. |title=A Preliminary Investigation of the Effects of Water Hyacinth on Algal Growth and Water Quality. |publisher=Water Research Commission (Suid-Afrika) |year=1987}}</ref> low pH levels have been linked to tooth corrosion and disruption of gut homeostasis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hansen |first1=Tue H. |last2=Thomassen |first2=Mette T. |last3=Madsen |first3=Mia L. |last4=Kern |first4=Timo |last5=Bak |first5=Emilie G. |last6=Kashani |first6=Alireza |last7=Allin |first7=Kristine H. |last8=Hansen |first8=Torben |last9=Pedersen |first9=Oluf |date=2018-11-09 |title=The effect of drinking water pH on the human gut microbiota and glucose regulation: results of a randomized controlled cross-over intervention |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=16626 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-34761-5 |pmid=30413727 |pmc=6226457 |bibcode=2018NatSR...816626H |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> Lastly, lining the reservoir with clay was also intelligently applied to help stabilize water pH.<ref name="Lucero-2011" />

==== Role in political power ====
A significant proportion of royal power rested in what the ruling party could materially provide for their subjects (i.e. water during annual drought through massive artificial [[reservoir]]s). Hence, water and by extension, reservoirs became a significant part of the Maya [[power structure]]. This also means that a way for [[Maya Kings and Queens|Maya rulers]] to concentrate their power would be through proper water management.<ref name="Lucero-2008">{{Cite journal |last=Lucero |first=Lisa J. |date=2008-06-28 |title=Water Control and Maya Politics in the Southern Maya Lowlands |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1525/ap3a.1999.9.1.35 |journal=Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=35–49 |doi=10.1525/ap3a.1999.9.1.35}}</ref> This created a feedback loop in which tools associated with water management became associated with Maya rulers. The association of clean water, [[Nymphaeaceae|water lilies]], and royal power is amply illustrated in the [[iconography]].<ref>Ford, A. Critical Resource Control and the Rise of the Classic Period Maya. In ''The Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use''; Fedick, S.L., Ed.; University of Utah Press: Salt Lake City, UT, USA; pp. 297–303.</ref><ref name="Lucero-2008" />

This also means that when water was mismanaged, the rulers were blamed for it. For example, in the Maya city of [[Caracol]] droughts peaked in the years 806, 829, 842, 857, 895, 909 921 and 935 A.D. Most importantly, the years between A.D. 804 and 938 show a 36% to 56% drop in precipitation. While the rulers were blamed and eventually moved away, the common people stayed.<ref name="Lucero-2011"/>

===Architectural groups===
[[File:Tikal9.jpg|thumb|left|The North Acropolis]]
The '''Great Plaza''' lies at the core of the site; it is flanked on the east and west sides by two great temple-pyramids. On the north side it is bordered by the North [[Acropolis]] and on the south by the Central Acropolis.<ref name=c123/>

The '''[[Central Acropolis]]''' is a palace complex just south of the Great Plaza.<ref name=c123/>

The '''[[North Acropolis, Tikal|North Acropolis]]''', together with the Great Plaza immediately to the south, is one of the most studied architectural groups in the Maya area; the Tikal Project excavated a massive trench across the complex, thoroughly investigating its construction history. It is a complex group with construction beginning in the Preclassic Period, around 350 BC. It developed into a funerary complex for the ruling dynasty of the Classic Period, with each additional royal burial adding new temples on top of the older structures. After AD 400 a row of tall pyramids was added to the earlier Northern Platform, which measured {{convert|100|by|80|m|ft|sp=us}}, gradually hiding it from view. Eight temple pyramids were built in the 6th century AD, each of them had an elaborate [[Roof comb|roofcomb]] and a stairway flanked by masks of the gods. By the 9th century AD, 43 stelae and 30 altars had been erected in the North Acropolis; 18 of these monuments were carved with [[Maya script|hieroglyphic texts]] and royal portraits. The North Acropolis continued to receive burials into the Postclassic Period.<ref name=mg43/><ref name=d186/>

[[File:Mundo Perdido pyramid 5C-54, Tikal.jpg|thumb|The Lost World Pyramid in the Mundo Perdido complex]]
The '''South Acropolis''' is found next to Temple V. It was built upon a large basal platform that covers an area of more than {{convert|20000|m2|sqft|sp=us}}.<ref name=d185/>

The '''[[Plaza of the Seven Temples]]''' is to the west of the South Acropolis. It is bordered on the east side by a row of nearly identical temples, by palaces on the south and west sides and by an unusual triple [[Mesoamerican ballcourt|ballcourt]] on the north side.<ref name=d185/><ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.304.</ref>

The '''[[Mundo Perdido, Tikal|Mundo Perdido]]''' is to the west of the Plaza of the Seven Temples.<ref name="Coe 1967, 1988, pp.90–91">Coe 1967, 1988, pp.90–91.</ref> It is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at Tikal.<ref name="MartinGrube00p28">Martin and Grube 2000, p.28.</ref> The complex was organized as a large [[E-Group]] consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples.<ref name="MartinGrube00p28"/> The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history. By AD 250–300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of [[Teotihuacan]] in the [[Valley of Mexico]], including the use of the ''[[talud-tablero]]'' form.<ref>Martin and Grube 2000, p. 29. Sharer and Traxler 2006, p.321.</ref> During the Early Classic period (c. 250–600) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city, the other being the North Acropolis.<ref name="MartinGrube00p29">Martin and Grube 2000, p.29.</ref> From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis.<ref name="MartinGrube00p29"/> The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archaeologists of the University of Pennsylvania; it is centered upon the Lost World Pyramid and a small platform to the west of it.<ref name="Coe 1967, 1988, pp. 90–91"/> To the south of Mundo Perdido, recent 2021 excavations have revealed a one-third size replication of La Ciudadela, or The Citadel, in Teotihuacan. This area may have been used as a diplomatic headquarters and as an effort to further stamp Teotihuacan culture upon the residents of Tikal.<ref>{{cite web |title=Copy of famous Teotihuacan structure discovered in Maya city |url=https://www.livescience.com/teotihuacan-maya-embassy-in-tikal.html |website=Live Science|date=29 April 2021 }}</ref>

'''Group G''' lies just south of the Mendez Causeway. The complex dates to the Late Classic and consists of palace-type structures and is one of the largest groups of its type at Tikal. It has two stories but most of the rooms are on the lower floor, a total of 29 [[Vault (architecture)|vaulted]] chambers. The remains of two further chambers belong to the upper story. One of the entrances to the group was framed by a gigantic mask.<ref name=k139/>

'''Group H''' is centered on a large plaza to the north of the Great Plaza. It is bordered by temples dating to the Late Classic.<ref name=k138/>

[[File:Tikal Plaza of the Seven Temples.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The Plaza of the Seven Temples]]
There are nine '''[[Twin-pyramid complex]]es''' at Tikal, one of which was completely dismantled in ancient times and some others were partly destroyed. They vary in size but consist of two pyramids facing each other on an east–west axis.<ref name=k138/> These pyramids are flat-topped and have stairways on all four sides. A row of plain stelae is placed immediately to the west of the eastern pyramid and to the north of the pyramids. Lying roughly equidistant from them, there is usually a sculpted stela and altar pair. On the south side of these complexes there is a long vaulted building containing a single room with nine doorways. The entire complex was built at once and these complexes were built at 20-year (or ''k'atun'') intervals during the Late Classic.<ref name=k139/> The first twin-pyramid complex was built in the early 6th century in the East Plaza. It was once thought that these complexes were unique to Tikal but rare examples have now been found at other sites, such as [[Yaxha]] and [[Ixlu]], and they may reflect the extent of Tikal's political dominance in the Late Classic.<ref name=mg51>Martin & Grube 2000, p.51.</ref>

'''Group Q ''' is a twin-pyramid complex, and is one of the largest at Tikal. It was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II in 771 in order to mark the end of the 17th K'atun.<ref name=mg51/> Most of it has been restored and its monuments have been re-erected.<ref name=k139/>

'''Group R''' is another twin-pyramid complex, dated to 790. It is close to the Maler Causeway.<ref name=k139/>

===Structures===
[[File:Belize-tikal.jpg|thumb|upright|Temple II on the main plaza]]

There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been [[Excavation (archaeology)|excavated]], after decades of [[Archeology|archaeological]] work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large pyramids, labelled Temples I – VI, each of which support a [[temple]] structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over {{convert|60|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} high. They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site. It is estimated that each of these major temples could have been built in as little as two years.<ref name=k133>Kelly 1996, p.133.</ref>

'''[[Tikal Temple I|Temple I]]''' (also known as the ''Temple of Ah Cacao'' or ''Temple of the Great Jaguar'') is a funerary pyramid dedicated to Jasaw Chan Kʼawil, who was entombed in the structure in AD 734,<ref name=mg43>Martin & Grube 2000, p.43.</ref><ref name=c123/> the pyramid was completed around 740–750.<ref>Webster 2002, pl.15.</ref> The temple rises {{convert|47|m|ft|sp=us}} high.<ref name=mg47>Martin & Grube 2000, p.47.</ref> The massive roofcomb that topped the temple was originally decorated with a giant sculpture of the enthroned king, although little of this decoration survives.<ref>Miller 1999, p.27.</ref> The tomb of the king was discovered by Aubrey Trik of the University of Pennsylvania in 1962.<ref name=c124>Coe 1999, p.124.</ref> Among items recovered from the Late Classic tomb were a large collection of inscribed human and animal bone tubes and strips with sophisticated scenes depicting deities and people, finely carved and rubbed with [[vermilion]], as well as jade and shell ornaments and ceramic vessels filled with offerings of food and drink.<ref name=c124/><ref name=m78>Miller 1999, p.78.</ref> The shrine at the summit of the pyramid has three chambers, each behind the next, with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels fashioned from multiple beams. The outermost lintel is plain but the two inner lintels were carved, some of the beams were removed in the 19th century and their location is unknown, while others were taken to museums in Europe.<ref name=k133/>

[[File:Tikal temple 4 cyark.jpg|thumb|left|Contrasting photo, scan shot, and isometric images for the roof comb of Temple IV, using data acquired by a [[3D scanner|laser scan]] collected by nonprofit [[CyArk]]]]
'''[[Tikal Temple II|Temple II]]''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Mask'') it was built around AD 700 and stands {{convert|38|m|ft|sp=us}} high. Like other major temples at Tikal, the summit shrine had three consecutive chambers with the doorways spanned by wooden lintels, only the middle of which was carved. The temple was dedicated to the wife of Jasaw Chan Kʼawil, although no tomb was found. The queen's portrait was carved into the lintel spanning the doorway of the summit shrine. One of the beams from this lintel is now in the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in New York City.<ref name="Miller 1999, p.33"/><ref name=k134>Kelly 1996, p.134.</ref>

'''[[Tikal Temple III|Temple III]]''' (also known as the ''Temple of the Jaguar Priest'') was the last of the great pyramids to be built at Tikal. It stood {{convert|55|m|ft|sp=us}} tall and contained an elaborately sculpted but damaged roof lintel, possibly showing Dark Sun engaged in a ritual dance around AD 810.<ref name=mg52/> The temple shrine possesses two chambers.<ref name=k136>Kelly 1996, p.136.</ref>

'''[[Tikal Temple IV|Temple IV]]''' is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring {{convert|70|m|ft|sp=us}} from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb.<ref name=c123>Coe 1999, p.123.</ref> Temple IV marks the reign of Yikʼin Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid's summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is one of the largest pyramids built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century,<ref name=m32>Miller 1999, p.32.</ref> and it stands as one of the tallest pre-Columbian structures in the Americas,<ref name="Kelly 1996, p.137">Kelly 1996, p.137.</ref> only surpassed by the Great Pyramid of [[Toniná]] (75 meters) and La Danta pyramid of El Mirador (72 meters) while the [[Pyramid of the Sun]] at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller (71 meters).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tonina |url=https://www.themayanruinswebsite.com/tonina.html |website=Maya Ruins Website}}</ref>

'''[[Tikal Temple V|Temple V]]''' stands south of the Central Acropolis and is the mortuary pyramid of an as yet unidentified ruler. The temple stands {{convert|57|m|ft|sp=us}} high, making it the second tallest structure at Tikal – only Temple IV is taller.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.303-304.</ref> The temple has been dated to about AD 700, in the [[Mesoamerican chronology|Late Classic]] period, via [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon analysis]] and the dating of ceramics associated with the structure places its construction during the reign of Nun Bak Chak in the second half of the 7th century.<ref>Coe 1967, 1988, p.92. Valdés & Fahsen 2005, p.142.</ref>

'''[[Tikal Temple VI|Temple VI]]''' is also known as the ''Temple of the Inscriptions'' and was dedicated in AD 766. It is notable for its {{convert|12|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} high roof-comb. Panels of hieroglyphs cover the back and sides of the roof-comb. The temple faces onto a plaza to the west and its front is unrestored.<ref name=k139/>

'''[[Tikal Temple 33|Temple 33]]''' was a funerary pyramid erected over the tomb of Siyaj Chan Kʼawiil I (known as Burial 48) in the North Acropolis. It started life in the Early Classic as a wide basal platform decorated with large stucco masks that flanked the stairway. Later in the Early Classic a new superstructure was added, with its own masks and decorated panels. During the Hiatus a third stage was built over the earlier constructions, the stairway was demolished and another royal burial, of an unidentified ruler, was set into the structure (Burial 23). While the new pyramid was being built another high ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing {{convert|33|m|ft|sp=us}} tall.<ref name=mg36>Martin & Grube 2000, p.36.</ref> The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archaeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction.<ref>Coe 1967, 1988, p.46. Berlin 1967, p.241.</ref>

'''Structure 34''' is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other.<ref name=m32/>

[[File:Tikal Structure 5D-43 detail.jpg|thumb|Detail of Teotihuacan-related imagery decorating the sloping ''talud'' sections of the ''talud-tablero'' sides of Structure 5D-43<ref name=sm72>Schele & Mathews 1999, p.72.</ref>]]
'''Structure 5D-43''' is an unusual radial temple in the East Plaza, built over a pre-existing twin-pyramid complex. It is built into the end of the East Plaza Ballcourt and possessed four entry doorways and three stairways, the fourth (south) side was too close to the Central Acropolis for a stairway on that side.<ref>Schele & Mathews 1999, p.71.</ref> The building has a ''[[talud-tablero]]'' platform profile, modified from the original style found at Teotihuacan. In fact, it has been suggested that the style of the building has closer affinities with [[El Tajín]] and [[Xochicalco]] than with Teotihuacan itself. The vertical ''tablero'' panels are set between sloping ''talud'' panels and are decorated with paired disc symbols. Large flower symbols are set into the sloping ''talud'' panels, related to the Venus and star symbols used at Teotihuacan. The roof of the structure was decorated with [[frieze]]s although only fragments now remain, showing a monstrous face, perhaps that of a jaguar, with another head emerging from the mouth.<ref name=sm72/> The second head possesses a bifurcated tongue but is probably not that of a snake.<ref>Schele & Mathews 1999, pp.72-3.</ref> The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that  Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I, in the later part of the 7th century.<ref>Schele & Mathews 1999, pp.70-1.</ref>

'''Structure 5C-49''' possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has [[balustrade]]s, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a ''[[talud-tablero]]'' façade; it dates to the 4th century AD.<ref name=h228/> It is located near to the Lost World pyramid.<ref>Miller 1999, p.30.</ref>

'''Structure 5C-53''' is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that dates to about AD 600. It had stairways on all four sides and did not possess a superstructure.<ref name=k136/>

[[File:DSC03332TikalUnderjordiskSteinansikt.JPG|thumb|left|A large stucco mask adorning the substructure of Temple 33]]
The '''Lost World Pyramid''' (Structure 5C-54) is the largest structure in the Mundo Perdido complex.<ref>Coe 1967, 1988, p.90.</ref> It lies in the southwest portion of Tikal's central core, south of Temple III and west of Temple V.<ref name=h227/><ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.24"/><ref>Kelly 1996, p.130.</ref> It was decorated with stucco masks of the sun god and dates to the [[Mesoamerican chronology|Late Preclassic]];<ref name=d185/> this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. By the end of the Late Preclassic this pyramid was one of the largest structures in the Maya region.<ref name=h227/> It attained its final form during the reign of Chak Tok Ichʼaak in the 4th century AD, in the Early Classic, standing more than {{convert|30|m|ft|sp=us}} high with stairways on all four sides and a flat top that possibly supported a superstructure built from perishable materials.<ref name=h228>Hammond 2000, p.228.</ref><ref name=d188/> Although the plaza later suffered significant alteration, the organization of a group of temples on the east side of this complex adheres to the layout that defines the so-called [[E-Group]]s, identified as solar observatories.<ref>Hammond 2000, pp.227-8.</ref>

'''Structure 5D-96''' is the central temple on the east side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. It has been restored and its rear outer wall is decorated with skull-and-crossbones motifs.<ref>Kelly 1996, p.135.</ref>

'''Group 6C-16''' is an elite residential complex that has been thoroughly excavated. It lies a few hundred m south of the Lost World Complex and the excavations have revealed elaborate stucco masks, ballplayer murals, relief sculptures and buildings with Teotihuacan characteristics.<ref name=h228/>

The '''Great Plaza Ballcourt''' is a small ballcourt that lies between Temple I and the Central Acropolis.<ref name=k134/>

The '''Bat Palace''' is also known as the Palace of Windows and lies to the west of Temple III.<ref>Kelly 1996, pp.130, 136.</ref> It has two storeys, with a double range of chambers on the lower storey and a single range in the upper storey, which has been restored. The palace has ancient graffiti and possesses low windows.<ref name=k136/>

'''Complex N''' lies to the west of the Bat Palace and Temple III. The complex dates to AD 711.<ref>Kelly 1996, pp. 136-7.</ref>

In 2018, 60,000 uncharted structures were revealed by archaeologists with help of [[Lidar]]. Thanks to the new findings, some archaeologists believe that 7–11 million [[Maya peoples|Maya people]] inhabited in the northern [[Guatemala]] during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. The project was mapped near the [[Maya Biosphere Reserve]] in the [[Petén Department|Petén]] region of Guatemala.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.msn.com/en-sg/news/world/archaeologists-find-ancient-lost-cities-using-lasers/ar-BBNIdqB|title=Archaeologists Find Ancient Lost Cities Using Lasers|website=msn.com|access-date=2019-09-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2018/02/maya-laser-lidar-guatemala-pacunam/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807025257/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2018/02/maya-laser-lidar-guatemala-pacunam/|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 August 2019|title=This Ancient Civilization Was Twice As Big As Medieval England|date=1 February 2018|website=National Geographic News|access-date=2019-09-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-42916261|title=Sprawling Maya network discovered under Guatemala jungle|publisher=BBC News |date=2 February 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/archaeologists-find-ancient-cities-using-lasers-1145042|title=Archaeologists Find Ancient Mayan Lost Cities in Guatemala Using Lasers|website=NEWSWEEK|date=29 September 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/news/ancient-maya-structures-guatemala-lasers|title=Lasers Reveal 60,000 Ancient Maya Structures in Guatemala|last=Little|first=Becky|website=HISTORY|language=en|access-date=2019-09-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/hidden-ancient-mayan-apos-megalopolis-110002872.html|title=Hidden Ancient Mayan 'Megalopolis' With 60,000 Structures Discovered in Guatemala Using Lasers|website=yahoo.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-10|archive-date=5 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905113109/https://www.yahoo.com/news/hidden-ancient-mayan-apos-megalopolis-110002872.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/60000-lost-mayan-structures-found-beneath-guatemalan-jungle-2018-2|title=Archaeologists found thousands of hidden structures in the Guatemalan jungle – and it could re-write human history|last=Berke|first=Jeremy|website=Business Insider|access-date=2019-09-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/hidden-ancient-mayan-megalopolis-60000-structures-discovered-guatemala-using-797865|title=Hidden Ancient Mayan 'Megalopolis' With 60,000 Structures Discovered in Guatemala Using Lasers|website=NEWSWEEK|date=2 February 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://olodonation.com/2018/09/30/archaeologists-discover-ancient-mayan-lost-city-in-northern-guatemala-using-lasers/|title=Archaeologists Discover Ancient Mayan Lost City in Northern Guatemala Using Lasers|last=Chukwurah|first=Precious|date=30 September 2018|website=Nigeria’s Entertainment News, Music, Video, Lifestyle|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bgr.com/2018/02/02/mayan-megacity-discovered-guatemala-jungle/|title=Archaeologists discovered an ancient Mayan megacity hidden in a Guatemalan jungle|date=2 February 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2018/09/27/this-major-discovery-upends-long-held-theories-about-maya-civilization/?_ga=2.164638527.1462411402.1566373807-1089594517.1566373807&noredirect=on|title=This major discovery upends long-held theories about the Maya civilization|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>

===Altars===

'''Altar 5''' is carved with two nobles, one of whom is probably Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman.<ref>Webster 2002, pl.14.</ref> Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III.<ref name="Kelly 1996, p.137"/>

'''Altar 8''' is sculpted with a bound captive.<ref name=m130/> It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the [[Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología]] in [[Guatemala City]].<ref name=k138/>

'''Altar 9''' is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI.<ref name=k139/>

'''Altar 10''' is carved with a captive tied to a scaffold.<ref name=m130>Miller 1999, p.130.</ref> It is in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex and has suffered from erosion.<ref name=k139/>

'''Altar 35''' is a plain monument associated with Stela 43. The stela-altar pair is centrally located at the base of the stairway of Temple IV.<ref name="Morales08p422">Morales et al 2008, p.422.</ref>

===Lintels===
[[File:Tikal Temple IV lintel, cropped.jpg|thumb|left|The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from Temple IV. It celebrates a military victory by Yikʼin Chan Kʼawiil in 743.<ref name="Miller 1999, p.131">Miller 1999, p.131.</ref>]]
At Tikal, beams of [[sapodilla]] wood were placed as lintels spanning the inner doorways of temples. These are the most elaborately carved wooden lintels to have survived anywhere in the Maya region.<ref>Miller 1999, pp.130-1.</ref>

'''Lintel 3''' from Temple IV was taken to [[Basel]] in Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yikʼin Chan Kʼawiil seated on a [[palanquin]].<ref name="Miller 1999, p.131"/>

===Stelae===

[[Maya stelae|Stelae]] are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows:

'''Stela 1''' dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan Kʼawiil II in a standing position.<ref>Miller 1999, p.153.</ref>

'''Stela 4''' is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area.<ref>Miller 1999, p.94.</ref> The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tláloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile.<ref>Miller 1999, p.95.</ref>

'''Stela 5''' was dedicated in 744 by Yikʼin Chan Kʼawiil.<ref name=m129>Miller 1999, p.129.</ref>

'''Stela 6''' is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal" who celebrated the end of the 4th Kʼatun in that year.<ref name=mg38>Martin & Grube 2000, p.38.</ref>

'''Stela 10''' is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomteʼ Bʼalam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument.<ref name=mg39>Martin & Grube 2000, p.39.</ref>

'''Stela 11''' was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil II.<ref name=mg53/>

'''Stela 12''' is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomteʼ Bʼalam. The queen is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king.<ref name=mg38-9>Martin & Grube 2000, pp.38–9.</ref>

'''Stela 16''' was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument.<ref name=m129/> It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III.<ref name="Kelly 1996, p.137"/>

'''Stela 18''' was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the ''kʼatun''-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine.<ref>Martin and Grube 2000, pp. 33–34.</ref>

'''Stela 19''' was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II.<ref name=m129/>

'''Stela 20''' was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City.<ref name=k138/>

'''Stela 21''' was dedicated in 736 by Yikʼin Chan Kʼawiil.<ref name=m129/> Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela is associated with Altar 9 and is located in front of Temple VI.<ref name=k139/>

'''Stela 22''' was dedicated in 771 by Yax Nuun Ahiin II in the northern enclosure of Group Q, a twin-pyramid complex.<ref name=m129/> The face of the figure on the stela has been mutilated.<ref name=k139/>

'''Stela 23''' was broken in antiquity and was re-erected in a residential complex. The defaced portrait on the monument is that of the so-called "Lady of Tikal", a daughter of Chak Tok Ichʼaak II who became queen at the age of six but never ruled in her own right, being paired with male co-rulers. It dates to the early 6th century.<ref name=mg38/>

'''Stela 24''' was erected at the foot of Temple 3 in 810, accompanied by Altar 7. Both were broken into fragments in ancient times, although the name of Dark Sun survives on three fragments.<ref name=mg52/>

'''Stela 26''' was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34, underneath a broken masonry altar. The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine.<ref>Coe 1967, 1988, p. 45.</ref>

'''Stela 29''' bears a Long Count (8.12.14.8.15) date equivalent to AD 292, the earliest surviving Long Count date from the Maya lowlands.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.27"/> The stela is also the earliest monument to bear the Tikal emblem glyph. It bears a sculpture of the king facing to the right, holding the head of an underworld jaguar god, one of the patron deities of the city. The stela was deliberately smashed during the 6th century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archaeologists in 1959.<ref>Miller 1999, p.91.</ref><ref>Drew 1999, pp.187–8.</ref>

'''Stela 30''' is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies.<ref name=m129/>

[[File:Tikal Stela 31.jpg|thumb|upright|Stela 31, with the sculpted image of Siyaj Chan Kʼawiil II<ref name=m97>Miller 1999, p.97.</ref>]]
'''Stela 31''' is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He carries a spearthrower in one hand and bears a shield decorated with the face of [[Tláloc]], the Teotihuacan [[war god]].<ref>Coe 1999, pp.91-2.</ref> In ancient times the sculpture was broken and the upper portion was moved to the summit of Temple 33 and ritually buried.<ref name=m96>Miller 1999, p.96.</ref> Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument, the longest to survive from the Early Classic,<ref name=m97/> which describes the arrival of Siyah Kʼakʼ at El Peru and Tikal in January 378.<ref name=d199>Drew 1999, p.199.</ref> It was also the first stela at Tikal to be carved on all four faces.<ref>Miller 1999, p.98.</ref>

'''Stela 32''' is a fragmented monument with a foreign Teotihuacan-style sculpture apparently depicting the lord of that city with the attributes of the central Mexican storm god Tláloc, including his goggle eyes and tasselled headdress.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p.31.</ref>

'''Stela 39''' is a broken monument that was erected in the Lost World complex. The upper portion of the stela is missing but the lower portion shows the lower body and legs of Chak Tok Ichʼaak, holding a flint axe in his left hand. He is trampling the figure of a bound, richly dressed captive. The monument is dated to AD 376. The text on the back of the monument describes a bloodletting ritual to celebrate a [[Kʼatun]]-ending.<ref name=d188>Drew 1999, p.188.</ref> The stela also names Chak Tok Ichʼaak I's father as Kʼinich Muwaan Jol.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.27"/>

'''Stela 40''' bears a portrait of Kan Chitam and dates to AD 468.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p.37.</ref>

'''Stela 43''' is paired with Altar 35. It is a plain monument at the base of the stairway of Temple IV.<ref name="Morales08p422"/>

===Burials===

[[File:Burial 10 vessel.jpg|thumb|upright|A ceramic censer representing an elderly deity, found in Burial 10<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p.33.</ref>]]
'''Burial 1''' is a tomb in the Lost World complex. A fine ceramic bowl was recovered from the tomb, with the handle formed from three-dimensional head and neck of a bird emerging from the two-dimensional body painted on the lid.<ref>Miller 1999, pp.193-4.</ref>

'''Burial 10''' is the tomb of [[Yax Nuun Ahiin I]].<ref name=c90/> It is located beneath Structure 34 in the North Acropolis. The tomb contained a rich array of offerings, including ceramic vessels and food, and nine youths were sacrificed to accompany the dead king.<ref name=m32/> A [[Dogs in Mesoamerica|dog]] was also entombed with the deceased king. Pots in the tomb were stuccoed and painted and many demonstrated a blend of Maya and Teotihuacan styles.<ref name=m96/> Among the offerings was an incense-burner in the shape of an elderly underworld god, sitting on a stool made of human bones and holding a severed head in his hands.<ref>Drew 1999, p.197.</ref> The tomb was sealed with a corbel vault, then the pyramid was built on top.<ref name=m32/>

'''Burial 48''' is generally accepted as the tomb of [[Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II]]. It is located beneath Temple 33 in the North Acropolis.<ref name=mg36/><ref name=c91>Coe 1999, p.91.</ref> The chamber of the tomb was cut from the bedrock and contained the remains of the king himself together with those of two adolescents who had been sacrificed in order to accompany the deceased ruler.<ref name=c91/> The walls of the tomb were covered with white stucco painted with hieroglyphs that included the Long Count date equivalent to 20 March 457, probably the date of either the death or interment of the king.<ref name=c94>Coe 1999, p.94.</ref> The king's skeleton was missing its skull, its [[femur]]s and one of its hands while the skeletons of the sacrificial victims were intact.<ref name=m78/>

'''Burial 85''' dates to the Late Preclassic and was enclosed by a platform, with a primitive corbel vault. The tomb contained a single male skeleton, which lacked a skull and its thighbones.<ref name=d187>Drew 1999, p.187.</ref><ref name=c75>Coe 1999, p.75.</ref> The dynastic founder of Tikal, [[Yax Ehb Xook]], has been linked to this tomb, which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis.<ref name=d187/> The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers. The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle.<ref>Coe 1999, pp.75-6.</ref> The missing head was replaced by a small [[greenstone (archaeology)|greenstone]] mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband.<ref name=d187/><ref name=c76>Coe 1999, p.76.</ref> This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king.<ref name=m89/> Among the contents of the tomb were a [[stingray]] spine, a [[spondylus]] shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels.<ref name=c76/>

'''Burial 116''' is the tomb of [[Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I]]. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of [[jadeite]], ceramics, shell and works of art. The body of the king was covered with large quantities of jade ornaments including an enormous necklace with especially large beads, as depicted in sculpted portraits of the king. One of the outstanding pieces recovered from the tomb was an ornate jade [[mosaic]] vessel with the lid bearing a sculpted portrait of the king himself.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.397-399.</ref>

'''Burial 195''' was flooded with mud in antiquity. This flood had covered wooden objects that had completely rotted away by the time the tomb was excavated, leaving hollows in the dried mud. Archaeologists filled these hollows with stucco and thus excavated four effigies of the god [[Kʼawiil]], the wooden originals long gone.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p.41.</ref><ref>Miller 1999, p.216.</ref>

'''Burial 196''' is a Late Classic royal tomb that contained a jade mosaic vessel topped with the head of the Maize God.<ref name="Coe 1999, p.104"/>