Editing Tantra (section)

====Proto-Tantric elements in Shaktism and Shaivism====
[[File:Aghoree, Hindoo mendicant, Benares.jpg|thumb|A modern [[aghori]] with a skull-cup ([[Kapala]]). Their predecessors, the medieval [[Kapalika]]s ("Skull-men") were influential figures in the development of transgressive or [[Vamachara|"left hand"]] Shaiva tantra.]]

The ''Mahabharata'', the ''Harivamsa'', and the ''Devi Mahatmya'' in the ''[[Markandeya Purana]]'' all mention the fierce, demon-killing manifestations of the Great Goddess, [[Mahishamardini]], identified with [[Durga]]-[[Parvati]].{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=28-30}} These suggest that [[Shaktism]], reverence and worship for the Goddess in Indian culture, was an established tradition by the early centuries of the 1st millennium.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=28-29}} Padoux mentions an inscription from 423 to 424&nbsp;CE which mentions the founding of a temple to terrifying deities called "the mothers".{{sfnp|Padoux|2017|p=21}} However, this does not mean Tantric rituals and practices were as yet a part of either Hindu or Buddhist traditions. "Apart from the somewhat dubious reference to Tantra in the Gangadhar inscription of 423&nbsp;CE", states David Lorenzen, it is only 7th-century Banabhatta's ''[[Kadambari]]'' which provide convincing proof of Tantra and Tantric texts.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=31-32}}

Shaivite ascetics seem to have been involved in the initial development of Tantra, particularly the transgressive elements dealing with the charnel ground. According to Samuel, one group of Shaiva ascetics, the [[Pashupata Shaivism|Pasupatas]], practiced a form of spirituality that made use of shocking and disreputable behavior later found in a tantric context, such as dancing, singing, and smearing themselves with ashes.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=242}}

Early Tantric practices are sometimes attributed to Shaiva ascetics associated with Bhairava, the [[Kapalikas]] ("skull men", also called ''Somasiddhatins'' or ''Mahavartins'').{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=30}}{{sfnp|Dyczkowski|1988|pp=26-27}}{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=243}} Besides the shocking fact that they frequented cremation grounds and carried human skulls, little is known about them, and there is a paucity of primary sources on the Kapalikas.<ref name="Lorenzen">{{harvp|Lorenzen|1972|pp=xii, 1–4}}</ref>{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=243}} Samuel also states that the sources depict them as using alcohol and sex freely, that they were associated with terrfying female spirit-deities called yoginis and [[dakini]]s, and that they were believed to possess magical powers, such as flight.{{sfnp|Samuel|2010|p=246}}

Kapalikas are depicted in fictional works and also widely disparaged in Buddhist, Hindu and Jain texts of the 1st millennium CE.<ref name="Lorenzen" />{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=30-31}} In [[Hāla]]'s ''[[Gaha Sattasai|Gatha-saptasati]]'' (composed by the 5th century AD), for example, the story calls a female character Kapalika, whose lover dies, he is cremated, she takes his cremation ashes and smears her body with it.{{sfnp|Dyczkowski|1988|pp=26-27}} The 6th-century [[Varāhamihira]] mentions Kapalikas in his literary works.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=30-31}} Some of the Kāpālika practices mentioned in these texts are those found in Shaiva Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism, and scholars disagree on who influenced whom.{{sfnp|Davidson|2004|pp=202–218}}{{sfnp|Sanderson|2012–2013|pp=4–5, 11, 57}}

These early historical mentions are in passing and appear to be Tantra-like practices, they are not detailed nor comprehensive presentation of Tantric beliefs and practices. Epigraphic references to the ''Kaulas'' Tantric practices are rare. Reference is made in the early 9th century to ''vama'' (left-hand) Tantras of the Kaulas.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=31}} Literary evidence suggests Tantric Buddhism was probably flourishing by the 7th century.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|p=27}} Matrikas, or fierce mother goddesses that later are closely linked to Tantra practices, appear both in Buddhist and Hindu arts and literature between the 7th and 10th centuries.{{sfnp|Lorenzen|2002|pp=27-31}}