Editing Socialist realism (section)

=== Theater ===
Theater is a realm in which socialist realism as a movement took root as a way to reach out and appeal to the masses. This occurred both within the [[Eastern Bloc|Soviet bloc]] as well as outside of it, with [[China]] being another hotbed for socialist realism within theater.

==== Soviet Union ====
[[File:Platon_Keržencev.jpg|left|thumb|Photo of [[Platon Kerzhentsev]]]]
Countries within the [[Soviet Union]] were heavily influenced by socialist realism when it came to theater. Early after the [[Russian Revolution|1917 revolution]], a movement arose to attempt to redefine what theater was, with theorist [[Platon Kerzhentsev]] wanting to break down the barriers between actors and the public, creating unity between the two.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gardiner |first=Jesse |title=Soviet Theatre During the Thaw: Aesthetics, Politics, and Performance |date=2023 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |location=New York |page=23}}</ref> This new way of thinking about what theater should be influenced the beginnings of socialist realism within this space, making it more communal and less hierarchical.

With the revolution, there was the ability to change the existing theatrical institutions to fit the new ideas circulating. The early 1920s saw this explosion of creativity, with organizations such as the TEO [[People's Commissariat for Education|Narkompros]] (the Department of Fine Arts) working to incorporate new types of theater.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gérin |first=Annie |title=Devastation and Laughter: Satire, Power, and Culture in the Early Soviet State (1920s–1930s) |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2018 |pages=83}}</ref> Thus, these movements were later brought under control and solidified by the Soviet government, as individual theatrical troupes were organized and transformed through governmental support.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mally |first=Lynn |date=1993 |title=Autonomous Theater and the Origins of Socialist Realism: The 1932 Olympiad of Autonomous Art |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/131343 |journal=The Russian Review |volume=52 |issue=2 |page=199 |doi=10.2307/131343 |jstor=131343 }}</ref>

A part of these movements involved the reinvention of classic shows, including those in the Western canon. ''[[Hamlet]]'' particularly had a draw for Russians, and was seen to provide insight into the workings and complexities of Russian life after the 1917 revolution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Kim |date=2021 |title=Shakespeare, Formalism, and Socialist Realism: The Censured Hamlets of Michael Chekhov and Nikolay Akimov |url=https://www.academia.edu/71648114 |journal=The Shakespearean International Yearbook |volume=18 |page=61 |via=Acedemia.edu}}</ref> Playwrights attempted to express their feelings about life around them while additionally following the guidelines of socialist realism, a way of reinventing old shows. ''Hamlet'' was re-imagined by [[Nikolay Akimov]], for example, as a show that was more materialist in nature, coming at the end of this era of experimentation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Kim |date=2021 |title=Shakespeare, Formalism, and Socialist Realism: The Censured Hamlets of Michael Chekhov and Nikolay Akimov |url=https://www.academia.edu/71648114 |journal=The Shakespearean International Yearbook |volume=18 |page=71 |via=Academia.edu}}</ref>

These movements were not merely localized to Russia, but spread throughout the USSR, with [[Poland]] being a notable location where socialist realism was implemented in theater. In order to make theater more accessible to the average person (for both entertainment and educational purposes), an emphasis was put on creating a network of smaller, independent theaters, including those in rural communities and traveling companies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiśniewska-Grabarczyk |first=Anna |date=2016 |title=Theater and Drama of Socialist Realism in the Context of Cryptotexts |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318395841 |journal=Polish Literary Journal of the University of Lodz |volume=37 |issue=7 |page=76 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref>

By making theater available to everyone, not simply those with the time and money to view it, officials hoped to educate the public both on theater itself and the various ideologies they wanted to promote. Beliefs that were more heavily promoted included those seen to be educational (with the idea of “teaching through entertaining” springing up), those upholding the values of nature and the countryside, and those that generally had a positive quality, especially when looking at children’s theater.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiśniewska-Grabarczyk |first=Anna |date=September 2016 |title=Theatre and Drama of Socialist Realism in the Context of Cryptotexts |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318395841 |journal=Polish Literary Journal of the University of Lodz |volume=37 |issue=7 |pages=79–80 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref>
[[File:Moscow-Bolshoi-Theare-1.jpg|thumb|Photo of the [[Bolshoi Theatre|Bolshoi Theater]] in Moscow]]
Reinvention of old forms took place, along with the creation of new theatrical movements. [[Opera]] as a theatrical form was reinterpreted and reinvented throughout the Soviet Union, moving away from its aristocratic roots and towards the support of the new state.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kotkina |first=Irina |date=2013 |title=Soviet Empire and Operatic Realm: Stalinist Search for the Model Soviet Opera |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24372082 |journal=Revue des études slaves |volume=84 |issue=3 |page=508 |doi=10.4000/res.1163 |jstor=24372082 }}</ref> By the 1930s, the [[Bolshoi Theatre|Bolshoi Theater]] in particular became a symbol of [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] power, and the question became how to best integrate socialist realism into an opera that could be performed there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kotkina |first=Irina |date=2013 |title=Soviet Empire and Operatic Realm: Stalinist Search for the Model Soviet Opera |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24372082 |journal=Revue des études slaves |volume=84 |issue=3 |page=509 |doi=10.4000/res.1163 |jstor=24372082 }}</ref> The [[Union of Russian Composers|Union of Soviet Composers]], established 1932, played a role towards creating these new operas, and spoke about the importance of socialist realism in opposition to modernistic art.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kotkina |first=Irina |date=2013 |title=Soviet Empire and Operatic Realm: Stalinist Search for the Model Soviet Opera |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24372082 |journal=Revue des études slaves |volume=84 |issue=3 |page=510 |doi=10.4000/res.1163 |jstor=24372082 }}</ref>

==== China ====
Though socialist realism was created by and is thought to mainly apply to countries within the Soviet Bloc, China in the late 18th century can be seen to be influenced by similar ideas, often taking direct inspiration from them.
[[File:田汉.gif|left|thumb|Photo of [[Tian Han]], playwright and president of the [[China Theatre Association|China Theater Association]]]]
Theater in China fell under the state’s purview after the [[Chinese Communist Revolution]], led partly by poet and playwright [[Tian Han]], President of the [[China Theatre Association|China Theater Association]] (among other honors). He pushed for theatrical reform in a socialist manner, primarily focused on transferring ownership from private troupes to state ones, but additionally on the subject matter of the plays themselves.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Xiaomei |title=Performing the Socialist State: Modern Chinese Theater and Film Culture |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2023 |location=New York |page=144}}</ref> This focus on private ownership as something to be avoided is similar to concerns seen in the Soviet Union, as is the nationalization of theater.

In the midst of these reforms, ideas around feminism and how it tied into socialism emerged, specifically with regards to theater. [[Bai Wei (writer)|Bai Wei]], inspired by Tian Han, developed a style of theater in the 1920s that focused specifically on women within a patriarchal society, and the struggle to break free of it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Xiaomei |title=Performing the Socialist State: Modern Chinese Theater and Film Culture |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2023 |location=New York |page=174}}</ref> She additionally incorporated ideas of socialist realism within her work, though did break from it in some ways, including the fact that her characters were more individualized and less collective. Strong female characters were, however, idealized and put forward in Chinese socialist realism, with these women often shown making some sort of sacrifice or grand action in service of a greater cause.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Xiaomei |title=Performing the Socialist State: Modern Chinese Theater and Film Culture |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2023 |location=New York |page=175}}</ref>

Socialist realism in Chinese theater can be seen to hone in on the ideas that it is more valuable to take action as a group, together, than individually. This is evident from plays put on during the [[Cultural Revolution]], where common themes included a large group standing up to imperialist forces (such as a [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Japanese invasion]], for example), with the individual characters within the play being less important than the overarching power struggle occurring.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Odom |first=Glenn |date=2014 |title=Socialist Realism and New Subjectivities: Modern Acting in Gao Xingjian's Cold Theatre |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43187291 |journal=Asian Theatre Journal |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=164 |doi=10.1353/atj.2014.0023 |jstor=43187291 }}</ref> By abstracting the conflicts to those occurring on a higher level, these plays hoped to educate and influence the people watching them.