Editing Social capital (section)

== Subtypes ==

=== Bonding, bridging, linking ===
In ''[[Bowling Alone|Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community]]'' (2000), Harvard political scientist [[Robert D. Putnam]] writes:<ref name="Putnam 2000" /><blockquote>[[Henry Ward Beecher]]'s advice a century ago to 'multiply picnics' is not entirely ridiculous today. We should do this, ironically, not because it will be good for America – though it will be – but because it will be good for us.</blockquote>Putnam speaks of two main components of the concept, the creation of which Putnam credits to Ross Gittell and Avis Vidal:

# '''Bonding social capital''': the value assigned to social networks between homogeneous groups of people.
# '''Bridging social capital''': the value assigned to social networks between socially heterogeneous groups.

Typical examples are that criminal gangs create bonding social capital, while [[choir]]s and bowling clubs (hence the title, as Putnam lamented their decline) create bridging social capital.<ref name="KaidHoltz-Bacha2007">{{cite book|author1=Lynda Lee Kaid|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCd1AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT106|title=Encyclopedia of Political Communication|author2=Christina Holtz-Bacha|date= 2007|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-1452265629|page=106}}</ref> The distinction is useful in highlighting how social capital may not always be beneficial for society as a whole (though it is always an asset for those individuals and groups involved). Horizontal networks of individual citizens and groups that enhance community productivity and cohesion are said to be positive social capital assets whereas self-serving exclusive gangs and hierarchical patronage systems that operate at cross purposes to [[societal]] interests can be thought of as negative social capital burdens on society.

Similar to Putnam, [[Daniel P. Aldrich]] describes three mechanisms of social capital:

# '''Bonding capital''': the relationships a person has with friends and family, making it also the strongest form of social capital. 
# '''Bridging capital''': the relationship between friends of friends, making its strength secondary to bonding capital.
# '''Linking capital''': the relationship between a person and a government official or other elected leader.

Aldrich also applies the ideas of social capital to the fundamental principles of [[Emergency management#Recovery|disaster recovery]], and discusses factors that either aid or impede recovery, such as extent of damage, population density, quality of government and aid. In his book ''Building Resilience: Social Capital in Post-Disaster Recovery'', he primarily examines Japanese recovery following the [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster|2011 Fukushima nuclear meltdown]].<ref>[[Daniel P. Aldrich|Aldrich, Daniel P.]]  2012. ''Building resilience: Social capital in post-disaster recovery''. [[University of Chicago Press]].</ref>

Social capital development on the internet via social networking websites such as [[Facebook]] or [[Myspace]] tends to be bridging capital according to one study, though "virtual" social capital is a new area of research.<ref>Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007)</ref>

=== Consummatory, instrumental ===
There are two other sub-sources of social capital:<ref name="Portes p. 7-8">Portes pp. 7–8</ref>

# '''Consummatory capital''': a behavior that is made up of actions that fulfill a basis of doing what is inherent. 
#* Examples include value interjection and solidarity.
# '''Instrumental capital''': behavior that is taught through ones surroundings over time.

==== Consummatory capital ====
Consummatory capital a behavior that is made up of actions that fulfill a basis of doing what is inherent. Two examples of consummatory social capital are value interjection and solidarity.<ref name="Portes p. 7-8" />

'''Value interjection:''' refers to the behavior of individuals or groups adhering to [[Social norm|societal norms]] by meeting expected obligations, such as following established rules, timely bill payments, and punctuality. Diligent adherence contributes personal advantages like financial stability and improved relationships, as well as broader societal gains, including enhanced market confidence and perceived reliability.

Coleman goes on to say that when people live in this way and benefit from this type of social capital, individuals in the society are able to rest assured that their belongings and family will be safe.<ref>Portes p. 7</ref> This understanding of '''solidarity''' may be traced to 19th century [[socialism|socialist]] thinkers, whose main focus was the urban working class of the [[Industrial Revolution]]. They analyzed the reasons these workers supported each other for the benefit of the group and held that this support was an adaptation to the immediate social environment, as opposed to a trait that had been taught to the workers in their youth.<ref name="Portes p. 7-8" /> As another example, Coleman states that possessing this type of social capital individuals to stand up for what they believe in, and even die for it, in the face of adversity.<ref name="Portes p. 8">Portes p. 8</ref>

While the notion of ''solidarity as social capital'' is sometimes attributed to [[Karl Marx]], in particular, the term ''social capital'' had a quite different meaning for Marx. All forms of "capital" were, for Marx, possessed only by capitalists and he emphasized the basis of labour in capitalist society, as a class constituted by individuals obliged to sell their [[labour power]], because they lacked sufficient capital, in any sense of the word, to do otherwise. Marx saw "social capital" as a theoretical total amount of capital, purely in the sense of accumulated wealth or property, that existed in a particular society. He thereby contrasted it with specific and discrete "individual capital."<ref>[https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1885-c2/ch18.htm Karl Marx, 1885, ''Capital Volume II, Part III: The Reproduction and Circulation of the Aggregate Social Capital, Chapter 18: Introduction I. The Subject Investigated''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204150311/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1885-c2/ch18.htm |date=4 February 2023 }}, (24 March 2017).</ref>

==== Instrumental capital ====
Instrumental capital is behavior that is taught through one's surroundings over time. Individuals donating their resources are not seeking direct repayment from the recipient, but motivated by membership in the same social structure. Donors might not see a direct repayment, but, most commonly, they will be held by the society in greater honor.<ref name="Portes p. 8" />

Portes mentions the donation of a scholarship to a member of the same ethnic group as an example of this. The donor is not giving up resources to be directly repaid by the recipient, but, as stated above, the honor of the community. With this in mind, recipients might not know the benefactor personally, but prospers as a member of the same social group.<ref>Portes pp. 8–9</ref>

Social capital is also linked with religious communities. Religion represents an important aspect of social capital ([[religious social capital]]).<ref>Wojciech Sadłoń, ''Religijny kapitał społeczny. Saabrucken'', Bezkresy Wiedzy, 2014, p.&nbsp;297. {{ISBN|978-3639891119}}.</ref>