Editing Second Opium War (section)

==Aftermath==
{{main|Convention of Peking}}
[[File:Qing flag seized by the Anglo French.jpg|thumb|Qing flag seized by Anglo-French forces. The flag reads "親兵第五隊右營": Bodyguard, fifth squadron, right battalion (unit types are approximate), [[Les Invalides]].]]

On 24 October, the emperor's brother, [[Prince Gong (Qing dynasty)|Prince Gong]], conceded to the allied demands, the emperor having fled to Chengde on 22 September. British and French troops entered Beijing, where the Treaty of Tientsin was ratified by the [[Convention of Peking]].<ref name="Hibbert" />{{rp|283–284}}

At the time,{{refn| until being surpassed by [[Wikipedia]] in 2007{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}|group=nb}} the largest encyclopedia ever compiled in world history was the 1408 [[Ming Dynasty]] ''[[Yongle Encyclopedia]]'', most of which was looted or destroyed by foreign soldiers during the sack of Beijing, leaving only 3.5 percent surviving volumes today.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Encyclopedias and Dictionaries|edition=15th |year=2007 |volume=18|pages=257–286}}</ref>{{page range too broad|date=February 2022}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2011/04/an-encyclopedia-finished-in-1408-that-contained-nearly-one-million-pages/|title = An Encyclopedia Finished in 1408 That Contained Nearly One Million Pages|date = 6 April 2011}}</ref> The British, French and—thanks to the schemes of Ignatiev—the Russians were all granted a permanent diplomatic presence in Beijing (something the Qing Empire resisted to the very end as it suggested equality between China and the European powers). The Chinese had to pay 8&nbsp;million [[tael]]s to Britain and France. Kowloon was ceded to the British owned Hong Kong. The opium trade was legalized and Christians were granted full [[civil rights]], including the [[right to own property]], and the right to [[evangelism|evangelize]].{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

The content of the Convention of Beijing included:
# China's signing of the Treaty of Tianjin
# Opening Tianjin as a trade port
# Cede No.1 District of [[Kowloon]] (south of present-day [[Boundary Street]]) to Britain
# Freedom of religion established in China
# British ships were allowed to carry indentured Chinese to the Americas
# Indemnity to Britain and France increasing to 8&nbsp;million taels of silver apiece
# Legalization of the opium trade

Two weeks later, Ignatiev forced the Qing government to sign a "Supplementary Treaty of Peking", which ceded the [[Primorsky Krai|Maritime Provinces]] east of the [[Ussuri River]] (forming part of [[Outer Manchuria]]) to the Russians, who went on to found the port of [[Vladivostok]] between 1860 and 1861.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}
The Anglo-French victory was heralded in the British press as a triumph for British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, which made his popularity rise to new heights. British merchants were delighted at the prospects of the expansion of trade in the Far East. Other foreign powers were pleased with the outcome too, since they hoped to take advantage of the opening-up of China.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

The defeat of the Qing army by a relatively small Anglo-French military force (outnumbered at least 10 to 1 by the Qing army) coupled with the flight (and subsequent death) of the Xianfeng Emperor, and the burning of the Summer Palace, was a shocking blow to the once powerful Qing Empire. "Beyond a doubt, by 1860 the ancient civilization that was China had been thoroughly defeated and humiliated by the West."{{sfn|Hsü|2000|p=219}} After the war, a major modernization movement, known as the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]], began in China, and several institutional reforms were initiated.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} As the Qing government became increasingly obligated to pay indemnities and protect Westerners following its loss in the Second Opium War and given the [[Unequal treaty|Unequal Treaties]], resistance to Qing rule increased.<ref name=":02">{{cite book |last1=Driscoll |first1=Mark W. |url= |title=The Whites Are Enemies of Heaven: Climate Caucasianism and Asian Ecological Protection |date=2020 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-1-4780-1016-6 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv1931h82 |jstor=j.ctv1931h82 |s2cid=229542406}}</ref>{{Rp|page=181}}

The [[opium trade]] incurred intense opposition from the later British Prime Minister [[William Ewart Gladstone]].<ref name="Lodwick2015">{{cite book|author=Kathleen L. Lodwick|title=Crusaders Against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China, 1874–1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DrAeBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86|year=2015|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|isbn=978-0-8131-4968-4|page=86}}</ref> As a member of Parliament, Gladstone called it "most infamous and atrocious", referring to the opium trade between China and British India in particular.<ref name="Chouvy2009">{{cite book|author=Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy|title=Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qGl4TN_qIsgC&pg=PA9|year=2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-05134-8|page=9}}</ref> Gladstone was fiercely against both of the [[Opium Wars]], was ardently opposed to the British trade in opium to China, and denounced British violence against Chinese.<ref name="QuinaultWindscheffel2013">{{cite book|author1=Dr Roland Quinault|author2=Dr Ruth Clayton Windscheffel|author3=Mr Roger Swift|title=William Gladstone: New Studies and Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hve4IOulDlwC&pg=PT238|year= 2013|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-8327-4|page=238}}</ref> Gladstone lambasted it as "Palmerston's Opium War" and said that he felt "in dread of the judgments of God upon England for our national iniquity towards China" in May 1840.<ref name="Foxcroft2013">{{cite book|author=Ms Louise Foxcroft|title=The Making of Addiction: The 'Use and Abuse' of Opium in Nineteenth-Century Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPosEno3uNYC&pg=PA66|year=2013|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-7984-0|page=66}}</ref> Gladstone made a famous speech in Parliament against the [[First Opium War]],<ref name="HanesSanello2004">{{cite book|author1=William Travis Hanes|author2=Frank Sanello|title=Opium Wars: The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jYmFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA78|year=2004|publisher=Sourcebooks, Inc.|isbn=978-1-4022-0149-3|page=78}}</ref><ref name="IIISanello2004">{{cite book|author1=W. Travis Hanes III|author2=Frank Sanello|title=The Opium Wars: The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lXiiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT88|year=2004|publisher=Sourcebooks|isbn=978-1-4022-5205-1|page=88}}</ref> criticising it as "a war more unjust in its origin, a war more calculated in its progress to cover this country with permanent disgrace".<ref name="Fay2000">{{cite book|author=Peter Ward Fay|title=The Opium War, 1840–1842: Barbarians in the Celestial Empire in the Early Part of the Nineteenth Century and the War by which They Forced Her Gates Ajar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgSs61pjvS8C&pg=PT290|year=2000|publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-8078-6136-3|page=290}}</ref> His hostility to opium stemmed from the effects of the drug upon his sister Helen.<ref name="Isba2006">{{cite book|author=Anne Isba|title=Gladstone and Women|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gaxDs8_oz_QC&pg=PA224|year=2006|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-85285-471-3|page=224}}</ref> Due to his disgust at the First Opium War, brought on by Palmerston, Gladstone was initially reluctant to join the government of [[Robert Peel]], but did so in 1841.<ref name="Bebbington1993">{{cite book|author=David William Bebbington|title=William Ewart Gladstone: Faith and Politics in Victorian Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEzV7PYYe5kC&pg=PA108|year=1993|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-0152-4|page=108}}</ref>

[[File:UK Victoria Cross ribbon bar.svg|50px]] Seven awards were made of the [[Victoria Cross]], all for gallantry shown on 21 August 1860 by soldiers of the [[44th (East Essex) Regiment of Foot|44th Regiment of Foot]] and the [[67th (South Hampshire) Regiment of Foot|67th Regiment of Foot]] at the [[Battle of Taku Forts (1860)]] (see [[List of Victoria Cross recipients by campaign]])