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==Varieties== {{See also|Logudorese dialect|Campidanese dialect}} [[File:Sardignwès rifondaedje mot påye2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The word for "peace" in all the varieties of Sardinian]] Historically, the Sardinians have always been a small-numbered population scattered across isolated [[Canton (country subdivision)|cantons]], sharing demographic patterns similar to the neighbouring Corsica; as a result, Sardinian developed a broad spectrum of dialects over the time. Starting from [[Francesco Cetti]]'s description in the 18th century,<ref>"Due dialetti principali si distinguono nella medesima lingua sarda; ciò sono il campidanese, e 'l dialetto del capo di sopra." {{cite book|author=Francesco Cetti|title=Storia naturale della Sardegna. I quadrupedi|year=1774|location=Sassari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7q9TAAAAcAAJ&q=francesco+cetti+storia+naturale}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://people.unica.it/mlorinczi/files/2007/04/5-sappada2000-2001.pdf|title=Marinella Lőrinczi, ''Confini e confini. Il valore delle isoglosse (a proposito del sardo)''}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Bolognesi|first=Roberto|title=Le identità linguistiche dei sardi|publisher=Condaghes|year=2013|isbn=978-88-7356-225-2|location=Cagliari|page=141|language=it|oclc=874573242|quote=In altre parole, queste divisioni del sardo in logudorese e campidanese sono basate unicamente sulla necessità - chiarissima nel Cetti - di arrivare comunque a una divisione della Sardegna in due "capi". [...] La grande omogeneità grammaticale del sardo viene ignorata, per quanto riguarda gli autori tradizionali, in parte per mancanza di cultura linguistica, ma soprattutto per la volontà, riscontrata esplicitamente in Spano e Wagner, di dividere il sardo e i sardi in varietà "pure" e "spurie". In altri termini, la divisione del sardo in due varietà nettamente distinte è frutto di un approccio ideologico alla variazione dialettale in Sardegna}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Corongiu|first=Giuseppe|title=Il sardo: una lingua normale: manuale per chi non ne sa nulla, non conosce la linguistica e vuole saperne di più o cambiare idea|publisher=Condaghes|year=2013|isbn=978-88-7356-214-6|location=Cagliari|language=it|oclc=856863696}}</ref> Sardinian has been presented as a [[pluricentric language]], being traditionally subdivided into two standardized varieties spoken by roughly half of the entire community: the dialects spoken in North-Central Sardinia, centered on the orthography known as [[Logudorese dialect|Logudorese]] (''su sardu logudoresu''), and the dialects spoken in South-Central Sardinia, centered on another orthography called [[Campidanese dialect|Campidanese]] (''su sardu campidanesu'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pittau.it/Sardo/grafia.html|title=Sardo, Grafia|author=Massimo Pittau}}</ref> All the Sardinian dialects differ primarily in phonetics, which does not considerably hamper intelligibility;<ref name=":3">"The phonetic differences between the dialects occasionally lead to communicative difficulties, particularly in those cases where a dialect is believed to be 'strange' and 'unintelligible' owing to the presence of phonetic peculiarities such as laryngeal or pharyngeal consonants or nazalized vowels in Campidanese and in the dialects of central Sardinia. In his comprehensive experimental-phonetic study, however, Contini (1987) concludes that interdialectal intelligibility exists and, on the whole, works satisfactorily." {{cite book|title=Bilingualism and Linguistic Conflict in Romance|author=Rebecca Posner, John N. Green|page=287|year=1993|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton}}</ref><ref>"Queste pretese barriere sono costituite da una manciata di fenomeni lessicali e fonetico-morfologici che, comunque, non-impediscono la mutua comprensibilità tra parlanti di diverse varietà del sardo. Detto questo, bisogna ripetere che le varie operazioni di divisione del sardo in due varietà sono tutte basate quasi esclusivamente sull'esistenza di pronunce diverse di lessemi (parole e morfemi) per il resto uguali. [...] Come si è visto, non-solo la sintassi di tutte le varietà del sardo è praticamente identica, ma la quasi totalità delle differenze morfologiche è costituita da differenze, in effetti, lessicali e la percentuale di parole realmente differenti si aggira intorno al 10% del totale." {{cite book|author=Roberto Bolognesi|title=Le identità linguistiche dei sardi|publisher=Condaghes|year=2013|page=141}}</ref><ref name="Sardinianvarieties">{{Cite book |title=Intonation in Romance |last1=Mar Vanrell |first1=Maria del |last2=Ballone |first2=Francesc |last3=Schirru |first3=Carlo |last4=Prieto |first4=Pilar |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-968533-2 |editor-last=Frota |editor-first=Sónia |pages=317–349|chapter=Sardinian intonational phonology: Logudorese and Campidanese varieties |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199685332.003.0009 |editor-last2=Prieto |editor-first2=Pilar |chapter-url=http://prosodia.upf.edu/home/arxiu/publicacions/2015%20OUP%20INTONATION%20IN%20ROMANCE/09-Frota%20&%20Prieto-Chap09-v2.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sardegnacultura.it/linguasarda/ilsardo/|title=Sardegna Cultura – Lingua sarda – Il sardo|access-date=28 November 2015}}</ref> the view of there being a dialectal boundary rigidly separating the two varieties of High Sardinian has been in fact subjected to more recent research, which shows a fluid [[dialect continuum]] from the northern to the southern ends of the island.<ref name=":4">Contini, Michel (1987). ''Ètude de géographie phonétique et de phonétique instrumentale du sarde'', Edizioni dell'Orso, Cagliari</ref><ref name=":5">Bolognesi R. & Heeringa W., 2005, ''Sardegna fra tante lingue. Il contatto linguistico in Sardegna dal Medioevo a oggi'', Condaghes, Cagliari</ref><ref name=":6">"L'esistenza di una striscia di "terra di nessuno" (fatta eccezione, comunque, per i dialetti di Laconi e Seneghe) tra dialetti meridionali e settentrionali, come anche della tradizionale suddivisione della Sardegna in due "capi" politico-amministrativi oltre che, ma fino a un certo punto, sociali e antropologici (''Cabu de Susu'' e ''Cabu de Jossu''), ma soprattutto della popolarizzazione, condotta dai ''mass media'' negli ultimi trent'anni, di teorie pseudo-scientifiche sulla suddivisione del sardo in due varietà nettamente distinte tra di loro, hanno contribuito a creare presso una parte del pubblico l'idea che il sardo sia diviso tra le due varietà del "campidanese" e del "logudorese". In effetti, si deve più correttamente parlare di due tradizioni ortografiche, che rispondono a queste denominazioni, mettendo bene in chiaro però che esse non-corrispondono a nessuna varietà reale parlata in Sardegna." Bolognesi, Roberto (2013). ''Le identità linguistiche dei sardi'', Condaghes, p. 93</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Bolognesi|first=Roberto|date=9 January 2018|title=Una lingua unitaria che non ha bisogno di standardizzazioni|url=https://bolognesu.wordpress.com/2018/01/09/una-lingua-unitaria-che-non-ha-bisogno-di-standardizzazioni/|access-date=14 November 2020|website=Bolognesu: in sardu|language=it}}</ref> The dualist perception of the Sardinian dialects, rather than pointing to an actual [[isogloss]], is in fact the result of a psychological adherence to the way Sardinia was administratively subvidided into a ''[[Caput]] Logudori'' (''Cabu de Susu'') and a ''Caput Calaris'' (''Cabu de Jossu'') by the Spanish.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roberto Bolognesi|year=2013|title=Le identità linguistiche dei sardi|publisher=Condaghes|page=138}}</ref> The dialects centered on the "Logudorese Sardinian model" are generally considered more conservative, with the Nuorese dialect of Sardinian (''su sardu nugoresu'') being deemed the most conservative of all. They have all retained the [[classical Latin]] pronunciation of the stop velars (''chena'' versus ''cena'', "supper"),<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.filologiasarda.eu/didattica/schede/slides.php?sez=37&id=883&ai=23&mc=0010000| title = ''Le occlusive velari davanti a vocale palatale'', Centro di Studi Filologici Sardi}}</ref> the front middle vowels (compare Campidanese [[iotacism]], probably from Byzantine Greek)<ref>''et ipso quoque sermo Sardorum adhuc retinetnon pauca verba sermonis graeci atque ipse loquentium sonum graecisanum quendam prae se fert'' – Roderigo Hunno Baeza, Caralis Panegyricus, about 1516, manuscript preserved in the University Library of Cagliari</ref> and assimilation of [[close-mid vowel]]s (''cane'' versus ''cani'', "dog" and ''gatos'' versus ''gatus'', "cats"). Labio-velars become plain labials (''limba'' versus ''lìngua'', "language" and ''abba'' versus ''acua'', "water").<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.filologiasarda.eu/didattica/schede/slides.php?sez=37&id=885&ai=25&mc=0010000| title = ''Le labiovelari'', Centro di Studi Filologici Sardi}}</ref> ''I'' is prosthesized before consonant clusters beginning in ''s'' (''iscala'' versus Campidanese Sardinian ''scala'', "stairway" and ''iscola'' versus ''scola'', "school"). An east-west strip of villages in central Sardinia, mainly in the central part of the [[Province of Oristano]], and central part of the [[Province of Nuoro]], speaks a transitional group of dialects (''su sardu de mesania''). Examples include ''is limbas'' (the languages) and ''is abbas'' (the waters). The dialects centered on the Campidanese model, spreading from [[Cagliari]] (once the metropolis of the [[Sardinia and Corsica|Roman province]]), show relatively more influences from [[Carthage]], Rome, Constantinople and [[Late Latin]]. Examples include ''is frùminis'' (the rivers) and ''is domus'' (the houses). Some dialects of Sardinian from the extreme ends of the aforementioned continuum have been estimated in another research to have 88% of matches in 110-item [[Swadesh list|wordlist]], similarly to the 85–88% number of matches between [[Provençal dialect|Provençal]] [[Occitan language|Occitan]] and some [[Catalan language|Catalan]] dialects<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jolr.ru/index.php?article=192|title=Journal of Language Relationship|website=jolr.ru}}</ref> which by some standards is usually (even though [[Language or dialect|arbitrarily]]) considered characteristic for two different, albeit very closely related, languages.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/35526837 |script-title=ru:Проблема "язык или диалект" и попытка лексикостатистического подхода |trans-title=Language vs. dialect: A lexicostatistic approach |script-journal=ru:Вопросы Языкознания |first=Yuri|last=Koryakov|date=January 2017 |issue=6 |pages=79–101 |via=www.academia.edu}}</ref> [[ISO 639]] counts four Sardinian languages (Campidanese, [[Gallurese language|Gallurese]], Logudorese and [[Sassarese language|Sassarese]]), each with its own language code. ;Non-Sardinian language varieties spoken in Sardinia [[File:Gallurese.png|thumb|Corso-Sardinian (orange and yellow) with regard to Sardinian proper (green)]] Sardinian is the indigenous and historical language of most Sardinian communities. However, Sardinian is not spoken as the native and primary language in a significant number of other ones, roughly amounting to 20% of the Sardinian population;<ref name="Ministero" /><ref name="Sardinianvarieties" /> [[Sassari]], the second-largest city on Sardinia and the main center of the northern half of the island, is amongst the latter. The aforementioned Gallurese and Sassarese, despite being often colloquially considered part of Sardinian, are two [[Corsican language|Corso]]-Sardinian transitional languages; they are spoken in the northernmost part of Sardinia,<ref name="minoranze">{{cite web |url=http://www.comune.oulx.to.it/doc_patois/0701.pdf |title=Le minoranze linguistiche in Italia |access-date=1 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084526/http://www.comune.oulx.to.it/doc_patois/0701.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.sardegnadigitallibrary.it/mmt/fullsize/2010072310445600012.pdf Maxia, Mauro. ''Studi sardo-corsi – Dialettologia e storia della lingua tra le due isole''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304210915/http://www.sardegnadigitallibrary.it/mmt/fullsize/2010072310445600012.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}, Taphros, 2010, Olbia</ref> although some Sardinian is also understood by the majority of people living therein (73.6% in [[Gallura]] and 67.8% in the Sassarese-speaking subregion). Francesco Cetti, responsible for the dialectal partition of the Sardinian language in his early dissertation, went on to deem these Corso-Sardinian varieties spoken in the island "foreign" (i.e. not indigenous to Sardinia) and therefore "not national" (i.e. non-Sardinian) in that he averred they would be "an Italian dialect, much more Tuscan in fact than the vast majority of Italy's dialects themselves".<ref>"Le lingue che si parlano in Sardegna si possono dividere in istraniere, e nazionali. Straniera totalmente è la lingua d'Algher, la quale è la catalana, a motivo che Algher medesimo è una colonia di Catalani. Straniera pure si deve avere la lingua che si parla in Sassari, Castelsardo e Tempio; è un dialetto italiano, assai più toscano, che non la maggior parte de' medesimi dialetti d'Italia." {{cite book|author=Francesco Cetti|title=Storia naturale della Sardegna. I quadrupedi|year=1774|location=Sassari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7q9TAAAAcAAJ&q=francesco+cetti+storia+naturale}}</ref> There are also two [[language island]]s, the [[Catalan language|Catalan]] [[Algherese dialect|Algherese]]-speaking community from the inner city of [[Alghero]] (northwest Sardinia) and the [[Ligurian language (Romance)|Ligurian]]-speaking towns of [[Carloforte]], in [[San Pietro Island]], and [[Calasetta]] in [[Sant'Antioco]] island (south-west Sardinia).<ref name="minoranze" /><ref>De Concini, Wolftraud (2003). ''Gli altri d'Italia : minoranze linguistiche allo specchio'', Pergine Valsugana : Comune, p. 196.</ref> === Sample of text === {| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%; text-align:center;" |- ! style="background:#efefef;"| English ! style="background:#efefef;"| Logudorese Sardinian ! style="background:#efefef;"| Campidanese Sardinian ! style="background:#efefef;"| LSC (Sardinian Written Standard) ! style="background:#efefef;"| Latin ! style="background:#efefef;"| Italian |- | Our Father, who art in heaven,<br/> hallowed be thy name.<br/> thy kingdom come,<br/> thy will be done,<br/> on earth as it is in heaven.<br/> Give us this day our daily bread,<br/> and forgive us our debts,<br/> as we forgive our debtors.<br/> And lead us not into temptation,<br/> but deliver us from evil. | Babbu nostru chi ses in chelu,<br/> Santificadu siat su nomine tou.<br/> Benzat a nois su rennu tou,<br/> Siat fata sa boluntade tua,<br/> comente in chelu gai in terra.<br/> Dona nos oe su pane nostru de donzi die,<br/> Et perdona nos sos pecados nostros,<br/> Comente nois perdonamus a sos depidores nostros.<br/> Et no nos lesses ruer in tentatzione,<br/> Et libera nos dae male. | Babbu nostu chi ses in celu,<br/> Santificau siat su nomini tuu.<br/> Bengiat a nosus su regnu tuu,<br/> Siat fata sa boluntadi tua,<br/> comenti in celu aici in terra.<br/> Donasi oi su pani nostu de dogna dii,<br/> Et perdonasi is pecaus nostus,<br/> Comenti nosus perdonaus a is depidoris nostus.<br/> Et no si lessis arrui in tentatzioni,<br/> Et liberasi de mali. | Babbu nostru chi ses in chelu,<br/> Santificadu siat su nòmine tuo.<br/> Bèngiat a nois su rennu tuo,<br/> Siat fata sa voluntade tua,<br/> comente in chelu gasi in terra.<br/> Dona་nos oe su pane nostru de ònnia die,<br/> E perdona་nos is pecados nostros,<br/> Comente nois perdonamus a is depidores nostros.<br/> E no nos lasses arrùere in tentatzione,<br/> E lìbera་nos de male. | Pater noster qui es in cælis,<br/> sanctificetur nomen tuum.<br/> adveniat regnum tuum,<br/> fiat voluntas tua,<br/> sicut in cælo et in terra.<br/> Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie,<br/> et dimitte nobis debita nostra,<br/> sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris.<br/> et ne nos inducas in tentationem<br/> sed libera nos a malo. | Padre Nostro, che sei nei cieli,<br/> Sia santificato il tuo nome.<br/> Venga il tuo regno,<br/> Sia fatta la tua volontà,<br/> Come in cielo, così in terra.<br/> Dacci oggi il nostro pane quotidiano,<br/> E rimetti a noi i nostri debiti<br/> Come noi li rimettiamo ai nostri debitori.<br/> E non abbandonarci alla tentazione,<br/> Ma liberaci dal male. |}
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