Editing Reformation (section)

=== Resistance and oppression ===
[[File:Treasury of St. Ursula, Cologne, the Rhine, Germany-LCCN2002714088.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2 |alt=A golden shrine in a large room|Treasury of [[Saint Ursula]] in the [[Basilica of St. Ursula, Cologne]]. Her popular cult contributed to the townspeople's resistance to Evangelical proselytism in [[Cologne]].{{sfn|Pfaff|2013|p=201}}]]

Resistance to Evangelical preaching was significant in [[County of Flanders|Flanders]], the [[Rhineland]], [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavaria]] and Austria.{{sfn|Becker|Pfaff|Rubin|2016|p=21}} Here the veneration of local saints was strong, and statistical analysis indicates that cities where indigenous saints' shrines served as centers of vivid communal cults less likely adopted Reformation.{{refn|group=note|Pfaff demonstrates in a study that the presence of a local saint's shrine in a city doubled the likelihood of resisting the Reformation.{{sfn|Pfaff|2013|p=202}}}}{{sfn|Pfaff|2013|p=214}} Likewise, cities with an episcopal see or monasteries more likely resisted Evangelical proselytism.<ref name="Rubin270"/>{{sfn|Curuk|Smulders|2016}} 

Luther's ideas were rejected by most representatives of the previous generation of Humanists. [[Erasmus]] stated that Luther's "unrestrained enthusiasm carries him beyond what is right". [[Jacob van Hoogstraaten]] (d. 1527) compared Luther's theology of salvation "as if Christ takes to himself the most foul bride and is unconcerned about her cleanliness".{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=132–134}} Luther's works were burned in most European countries.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=131}} Emperor Charles initiated the execution of the first Evangelical martyrs, the Augustinian monks [[Jan van Essen and Hendrik Vos]]. They were burned in Brussels on 1 July 1523.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|p=138}} Charles was determined to protect the Catholic Church, but the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks']] expansion towards Central Europe often thwarted him.{{sfn|Iyigun|2008|pp=4, 27}}{{sfn|Becker|Pfaff|Rubin|2016|pp=15, 19}} The [[Spanish Inquisition]] prevented the spread of Evangelical literature in that country, and suppressed the spiritual movement of the {{lang|es|[[Alumbrados]]}} ('Illuminists') who put a special emphasis on personal faith. Some Italian men of letters, such as the Venetian nobleman [[Gasparo Contarini]] (d. 1542) and the Augustinian canon [[Peter Martyr Vermigli]] (d. 1562) expressed ideas resembling Luther's theology of salvation but did not quickly break with Catholicism.{{refn|group=note|Contarini, according to his own words, "changed from great fear and suffering to happpiness" when he concluded, after counsel from a saintly monk on [[Holy Saturday]] 1511, that reliance on asceticism or penances was insufficient, unnecessary and counter-productive{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=92}} however he did not hold Luther's position on, e.g., the sinfulness of good works.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gleason |first1=Elizabeth |title=Gasparo Contarini: Venice, Rome, and Reform |date=1993 |publisher=UC Press |location=Berkeley |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft429005s2&chunk.id=d0e653&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e648&brand=ucpress;query=art#1}}</ref>}} They were part of a group known as {{lang|it|[[Spirituali]]}}.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|pp=146–147}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=135–136}} 

The English king [[Henry VIII]] ({{reign|1509|1547}}) commissioned a team of theologians to defend the Catholic dogmas against Luther's attacks. Their treatise titled ''[[Defence of the Seven Sacraments|The Assertion of the Seven Sacraments]]'' was published under Henry's name, and the grateful Pope awarded him with the title [[Defender of the Faith]].{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=131}}{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|p=142}} In Scotland, the first Evangelical preacher [[Patrick Hamilton (martyr)|Patrick Hamilton]] (d. 1528) was burned for heresy.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=316}} In France, the theologians of the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] stated that Luther "vomited up a doctrine of pestilence". [[Guillaume Briçonnet (Bishop of Meaux)|Guillaume Briçonnet]] (d. 1534), [[Bishop of Meaux]], also condemned Luther but employed reform-minded clerics like [[Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples]] (d. {{circa}} 1536) and [[William Farel]] (d. 1565) to renew religious life in his diocese. They enjoyed the protection of [[Marguerite de Navarre|Marguerite of Angoulême]] (d. 1549), the well-educated sister of the French king [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] ({{reign|1515|1547}}). The [[Parlement of Paris]] only took actions against them after Francis was captured in the [[Battle of Pavia]] in 1525, forcing many of them into exile.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=260–262}}

Correspondence between [[Luke of Prague]] (d. 1528), leader of the Bohemian Brethren, and Luther made it clear that their theologies were incompatible even if their views about justification were similar. In Bohemia, [[Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)|Hungary]], and [[Kingdom of Poland (1385-1569)|Poland]], Luther's theology spread in the local German communities. King [[Louis II of Hungary|Louis of Bohemia and Hungary]] ({{reign|1516|1526}}) ordered the persecution of Evangelical preachers although his wife [[Mary of Hungary (governor of the Netherlands)|Mary of Austria]] (d. 1558) favoured the reformers. [[Sigismund I the Old]], King of Poland and Grand Duke of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]] ({{reign|1506|1548}}) banned the import of Evangelical literature.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|pp=150–152}} [[Christian II of Denmark|Christian II]], who ruled the [[Kalmar Union]] of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway ({{reign|1513|1523}}), was sympathetic towards the Reformation but his despotic methods led to revolts. He was replaced by his uncle [[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick I]] in Denmark and Norway ({{reign|1523|1533}}), and by a local aristocrat [[Gustav I of Sweden|Gustav I Vasa]] in Sweden ({{reign|1523|1560}}).{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=275}}