Editing Ragnarök (section)

==Theories and interpretations==
[[File:Ragnarök by Collingwood.jpg|thumb|{{Lang|non|Ragnarök}} (''Motif from the [[Heysham hogback|Heysham Hogback]]'') (by [[W. G. Collingwood]], 1908)]]
[[File:Der Asen Untergang by Karl Ehrenberg.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Downfall of the Æsir'' by [[Karl Ehrenberg]], 1882]]

===Cyclic time and ''Hoddmímis holt''===
[[Rudolf Simek]] theorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir at the end of {{Lang|non|Ragnarök}} is "a case of reduplication of the [[anthropogeny]], understandable from the [[cyclic time|cyclic nature]] of the [[Edda|Eddic]] [[eschatology]]." Simek says that Hoddmímis holt "should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden, but rather as an alternative name for the world-tree [[Yggdrasill]]. Thus, the creation of mankind from tree trunks ([[Ask and Embla|Askr, Embla]]) is repeated after the {{Lang|non|Ragnarök}} as well." Simek says that in [[Germanic languages|Germanic regions]], the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient, and additionally points out legendary parallels in a [[Bavaria]]n legend of a [[shepherd]] who lives inside a tree, whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague (citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder). In addition, Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure of [[Örvar-Oddr]], "who is rejuvenated after living as a tree-man (''Ǫrvar-Odds saga'' 24–27)."{{sfn|Simek|2007|p=189|ps=. For Schröder, see Schröder (1931).}}

==={{lang|goh|Muspille}}, {{lang|osx|Heliand}}, and Christianity===
Theories have been proposed about the relation between {{Lang|non|Ragnarök}} and the 9th-century [[Old High German]] [[epic poetry|epic poem]] ''[[Muspilli]]'' about the Christian [[Last Judgment]], where the word {{lang|goh|Muspille}} appears, and the 9th-century [[Old Saxon]] epic poem {{lang|osx|[[Heliand]]}} about the life of [[Christ]], where various other forms of the word appear. In both sources, the word is used to signify the end of the world through fire.{{sfn|Simek|2007|pages=222–224}} The Christian thought of the Last Judgment as it is presented in the [[Book of Revelation]] is similar to the apocalyptic story of Ragnarök, which features imagery of a final cosmic conflict, devastation, and eventual renewal.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Braithwaite-Westoby |first=Manu |date=2019 |title=Sigurðr, Þórr and Ragnarök and their Christian Counterparts |url=https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=095214501755854;res=IELHSS |journal=Journal of the Australian Early Medieval Association |language=en |volume=15 |pages=81–104 |doi=10.35253/JAEMA.2019.1.4}}</ref> Key elements, such as the role of a savior figure and the contrast between divine forces and evil, may mirror Christian theological concepts brought during the conversion of Scandinavia.<ref name=":0" /> Old Norse forms of the term also appear throughout accounts of {{Lang|non|Ragnarök}}, where the world is also consumed in flames, and, though various theories exist about the meaning and origins of the term, its etymology has not been solved.{{sfn|Simek|2007|pages=222–224}} 

===Proto-Indo-European basis===
Parallels have been pointed out between the {{Lang|non|Ragnarök}} of [[Norse religion]] and the beliefs of other related [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European peoples]]. Subsequently, theories have been put forth that {{Lang|non|Ragnarök}} represents a later evolution of a [[Proto-Indo-European religion|Proto-Indo-European]] belief along with other cultures descending from the Proto-Indo-Europeans. These parallels include comparisons of a cosmic winter motif between the Norse {{lang|non|[[Fimbulwinter]]}}, the [[Iranian peoples#History and settlement|Iranian]] {{lang|pal|[[Bundahishn]]}} and {{lang|ae|[[Jamshid|Yima]]}}.{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|pages=182–183}} Víðarr's stride has been compared to the [[Vedas|Vedic]] god [[Vishnu]] in that both have a "cosmic stride" with a special shoe used to tear apart a beastly wolf.{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|pages=182–183}} Larger patterns have also been drawn between "final battle" events in Indo-European cultures, including the occurrence of a blind or semi-blind figure in "final battle" themes, and figures appearing suddenly with surprising skills.{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|pages=182–183}} 

Similar Indo-European mythological elements are highlighted by comparisons between Ragnarök and Iranian prophetic traditions. The wolves' destruction of the sun and moon in Völuspá is consistent with Iranian customs about the [[Fravashi]], divine guardians who intervene against demonic powers to guarantee the sun and moon's paths.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Hultgård |first=Anders |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192867254.001.0001 |title=The End of the World in Scandinavian Mythology |date=2022-10-18 |publisher=Oxford University PressOxford |doi=10.1093/oso/9780192867254.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-286725-4}}</ref> Iranian traditions depict this conflict as a part of the world's continuous war between good and evil, whereas Scandinavian mythology depicts the cosmic catastrophe as taking place at the end of time. These parallels highlight a common cosmological concern for upholding order in the face of chaotic forces.<ref name=":1" /> Ragnarök epitomizes the Old Norse warrior culture, in which bravery and resistance are used to face death's inevitable course. Gods such as Odin and Thor represent the ideal warrior archetypes, and the tale reflects a deeply ingrained cultural ideal of heroic tenacity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schjødt |first=Jens Peter |title=Ideology and Power in the Viking and Middle Ages |date=2011 |isbn=9789004205079 |pages=269–295 |chapter=Chapter Six. The Warrior In Old Norse Religion|doi=10.1163/ej.9789004205062.i-408.53 }}</ref> This philosophy supported a worldview in which destruction is not an end but a necessary prerequisite for rebirth. Iranian traditions share similarities with Ragnarök's warrior ethos. Warriors are portrayed in both mythologies as seeking for a spot in paradise, which is known as Valhalla in Norse mythology.<ref name=":1" /> This shared ideal reinforces the relationship between apocalyptic myths and societal ideals in Indo-European traditions by reflecting a cultural emphasis on the afterlife as a compensation for bravery and devotion in combat.<ref name=":1" />

===Volcanic eruptions===
[[Hilda Ellis Davidson]] theorizes that the events in {{lang|non|Völuspá}} occurring after the death of the gods (the sun turning black, steam rising, flames touching the heavens, etc.) may be inspired by the volcanic eruptions on Iceland. Records of eruptions in Iceland bear strong similarities to the sequence of events described in {{lang|non|Völuspá}}, especially the eruption at [[Laki]] that occurred in 1783.{{sfn|Davidson|1990|pages=208–209}} [[Bertha Phillpotts]] theorizes that the figure of Surtr was inspired by Icelandic eruptions and that he was a volcano demon.{{sfn|Phillpotts|1905|pages=14 ff.|ps=, in {{harvtxt|Davidson|1990|p=208}}}} Surtr's name occurs in some Icelandic place names, among them the [[lava tube]] [[Surtshellir]], a number of dark caverns in the volcanic central region of Iceland.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=Samir S. |title=The Blackener's Cave |journal=Archaeology |date=2017 |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=36–41 |jstor=26348924 |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/255-1705/features/5468-iceland-surtshellir-viking-cave }}</ref> This viewpoint is expanded by recent research by [[Mathias Nordvig]] and Felix Riede, which connects the apocalyptic themes of Ragnarök to important geological and climatic occurrences in the sixth century AD. Massive volcanic eruptions created a "dust veil" at this time, which produced broad climatic changes throughout the Northern Hemisphere, including as longer periods of darkness and colder temperatures.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Nordvig |first1=Mathias |last2=Riede |first2=Felix |date=2018 |title=Are There Echoes of the AD 536 Event in the Viking Ragnarok Myth? A Critical Appraisal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26529611 |journal=Environment and History |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=303–324 |doi=10.3197/096734018X15137949591981 |jstor=26529611 |bibcode=2018EnHis..24..303N |issn=0967-3407}}</ref> Known as one of the most intense volcanic winters in history, the years 536–550 AD brought about significant environmental changes in Scandinavia and shifts in settlement patterns during this time of climate disturbance, indicating a social reaction to these environmental issues.<ref name=":2" />

==={{lang|non|Bergbúa þáttr}}===
Parallels have been pointed out between a poem spoken by a {{lang|non|[[jötunn]]}} found in the 13th-century {{lang|non|[[þáttr]]}} {{lang|non|[[Bergbúa þáttr]]}} ("the tale of the mountain dweller"). In the tale, Thórd and his servant get lost while travelling to church in winter, and so take shelter for the night within a cave. Inside the cave they hear noises, witness a pair of immense burning eyes, and then the being with burning eyes recites a poem of 12 stanzas. The poem the being recites contains references to Norse mythology (including a mention of Thor) and also prophecies (including that "mountains will tumble, the earth will move, men will be scoured by hot water and burned by fire"). Surtr's fire receives a mention in stanza 10. [[John Lindow]] says that the poem may describe "a mix of the destruction of the race of giants and of humans, as in {{Lang|non|Ragnarök}}" but that "many of the predictions of disruption on earth could also fit the volcanic activity that is so common in Iceland."{{sfn|Lindow|2001|pages=73–74}}