Editing Public relations (section)

== Ethics ==
Public relations professionals both serve the public's interest and private interests of businesses, associations, non-profit organizations, and governments. This dual obligation gave rise to heated debates among scholars of the discipline and practitioners over its fundamental values. This conflict represents the main ethical predicament of public relations.<ref name="Carolyn Bronstein 2006">Kathy Fitzpatrick and Carolyn Bronstein, " Introduction: Towards a Definitional Framework for Responsible Advocacy," in Ethics in Public Relations, Responsible Advocacy, ed. Kathy Fitzpatrick and Carolyn Bronstein (USA: Sage Publications, Inc. 2006), ix.</ref> In 2000, the [[Public Relations Society of America]] (PRSA) responded to the controversy by acknowledging in its new code of ethics "advocacy" – for the first time – as a core value of the discipline.<ref name="Carolyn Bronstein 2006"/>

The field of public relations is generally highly un-regulated, but many professionals voluntarily adhere to the code of conduct of one or more professional bodies to avoid exposure for ethical violations.<ref name="Marshall2002">{{cite journal|last1=Marshall|first1=Tim|title=Ethics – Who needs them?|journal=Journal of Communication Management|volume=7|issue=2|year=2002|pages=107–112|issn=1363-254X|doi=10.1108/13632540310807313}}</ref> The [[Chartered Institute of Public Relations]], the Public Relations Society of America, and The Institute of Public Relations are a few organizations that publish an ethical code. Still, [[Edelman (firm)|Edelman]]'s 2003 semi-annual trust survey found that only 20 percent of survey respondents from the public believed paid communicators within a company were credible.<ref name="journal">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1108/13632540510621498|title = Can the professionalisation of the UK public relations industry make it more trustworthy?| journal=Journal of Communication Management| volume=9| pages=56–64|year = 2005|last1 = Tobin|first1 = Natasha}}</ref> Individuals in public relations are growing increasingly concerned with their company's marketing practices, questioning whether they agree with the company's social responsibility. They seek more influence over marketing and more of a counseling and policy-making role. On the other hand, individuals in marketing are increasingly interested in incorporating publicity as a tool within the realm marketing.<ref>Kermani, Faiz and Alan Needham. Marketing and Public Relations. Marlow: Institute of Clinical Research, 2006. N. pag. Print.</ref>

According to Scott Cutlip, the social justification for public relations is the right for an organization to have a fair hearing of their point of view in the public forum, but to obtain such a hearing for their ideas requires a skilled advocate.<ref>{{citation|first=Scott|last=Cutlip|author-link=Scott Cutlip|year=1994|title=The Unseen Power: Public Relations: A History|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates|isbn=978-0-8058-1464-4}}</ref>

Marketing and communications strategist, Ira Gostin, believes there is a code of conduct when conducting business and using public relations. Public relations specialists have the ability to influence society. Fact-checking and presenting accurate information is necessary to maintain credibility with employers and clients.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gostin|first=Ira|title=Council Post: Reflecting On Ethics And Doing The Right Thing As Professionals|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescommunicationscouncil/2020/09/10/reflecting-on-ethics-and-doing-the-right-thing-as-professionals/|access-date=30 November 2020|website=Forbes|language=en|archive-date=7 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107030223/https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescommunicationscouncil/2020/09/10/reflecting-on-ethics-and-doing-the-right-thing-as-professionals/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Public Relation Code of Ethics ===
The Public Relations Society of America has established a set of fundamental guidelines that people within the public relations professions should practice and use in their business atmosphere. These values are:

* '''''Advocacy''''': Serving the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for the clientele. This can occur by displaying the marketplace of ideas, facts and viewpoints to aid informed public debate.
* '''''Honesty''''': Standing by the truth and accuracy of all facts in the case and advancing those statements to the public.
* '''''Expertise''''': To become and stay informed of the specialized knowledge needed in the field of Public Relations. Taking that knowledge and improving the field through development, research and education. Meanwhile, professionals also build their understanding, credibility, and relationships to understand various audiences and industries.
* '''''Independence''''': Provide unbiased work to those that are represented while being accountable for all actions.
* '''''Loyalty''''': Stay devoted to the client while remembering that there is a duty to still serve the public interest.
* '''''Fairness''''': Honorably conduct business with any and all clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, media and general public. Respecting all opinions and right of free expression.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.prsa.org/ethics/code-of-ethics/|title=Code of Ethics - Public Relations Society of America|work=Public Relations Society of America|access-date=31 October 2018|archive-date=8 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308012507/http://www.prsa.org/ethics/code-of-ethics/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== International Public Relations Code of Ethics ===
Other than the ethics put in place in the United States of America there are also International ethics set to ensure proper and, legal worldwide communication. Regarding these ethics, there are broad codes used specifically for international forms of public relations, and then there are more specific forms from different countries. For example, some countries have certain associations to create ethics and standards to communication across their country.

The International Association of Business Communication (founded in 1971),<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Heath |first=Robert Lawrence |title=Encyclopedia of public relations |publisher=SAGE |year=2004}}</ref> or also known as IABC, has its own set of ethics in order to enforce a set of guidelines that ensure communication internationality is legal, ethical, and is in good taste. Some principles that members of the board of IABC follow include.

* Having proper and legal communication
* Being understanding and open to other people's cultures, values, and beliefs
* Create communication that is accurate, trusting, to ensure mutual respect and understanding

The IABC members use the following list of ethics in order to work to improve values of communication throughout the world:<ref name=":02" />

# Being credible and honest
# Keeping up with information to ensure accuracy of communication
# Understanding free speech and respecting this right
# Having sensitivity towards other people's thoughts, beliefs, and way of life
# Not taking part in unethical behaviors
# Obeying policies and laws
# Giving proper credit to resources used for communication
# Ensuring private information is protected (not used for personal gain) and if publicized, guarantee proper legal measures will be put in place.
# Publishers of said communication do not accept gifts, benefits, payments etc.; for work, or their services
# Creating results and spreading results that are attainable and they can deliver.
# Being fully truthful to other people, and themselves.

[[File:Three_sheets_of_newspaper.jpg|thumb|Media is a major resource in the public relations career especially in news networks. That is why as a public relations specialist, having proper information is very important, and crucial to the society as a whole.]]

=== Spin ===
{{Main|Spin (public relations)}}
Spin has been interpreted historically to mean overt deceit that is meant to manipulate the public, but since the 1950s has shifted to describing a "polishing of the truth."<ref name="Safire96"/> Today, spin refers to providing a certain interpretation of information meant to sway [[public opinion]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/spin|title=spin|via=The Free Dictionary|access-date=17 June 2012|archive-date=6 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906101710/https://www.thefreedictionary.com/spin|url-status=live}}</ref> Companies may use spin to create the appearance of the company or other events are going in a slightly different direction than they actually are.<ref name="Safire96">Safire, William
(1996) [https://www.nytimes.com/1996/12/22/magazine/the-spinner-spun.html?scp=19&sq=spin%20definition&st=cse ''The Spinner Spun''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222084110/http://www.nytimes.com/1996/12/22/magazine/the-spinner-spun.html?scp=19&sq=spin%20definition&st=cse |date=22 December 2016 }}</ref> Within the field of public relations, spin is seen as a derogatory term, interpreted by professionals as meaning blatant deceit and manipulation.<ref>[http://donhalepr.com/?p=163 Spin Doctor a Derogatory Term That Needs to Go, Dilenschneider Says] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518215557/http://donhalepr.com/?p=163 |date=18 May 2013 }}. Don Hale PR. Retrieved on 16 July 2013.</ref><ref>[http://blog.prnewswire.com/2012/02/17/dear-gracie-is-flack-a-four-letter-word/ Dear Gracie: Is 'Flack' a Four-Letter Word? {{!}} Beyond PR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028045613/http://blog.prnewswire.com/2012/02/17/dear-gracie-is-flack-a-four-letter-word/ |date=28 October 2012 }}. Blog.prnewswire.com (17 February 2012). Retrieved on 16 July 2013.</ref> Skilled practitioners of spin are sometimes called "spin doctors."

In [[Stuart Ewen]]'s ''PR! A Social History of Spin'', he argues that public relations can be a real menace to democracy as it renders the public discourse powerless. Corporations are able to hire public relations professionals and transmit their messages through the media channels and exercise a huge amount of influence upon the individual who is defenseless against such a powerful force. He claims that public relations is a weapon for capitalist deception and the best way to resist is to become media literate and use critical thinking when interpreting the various mediated messages.<ref>W. Timothy Coombs and Sherry J. Holladay, "Does Society Need Public Relations? Criticisms of Public Relations" in It's Not Just PR: Public Relations in Society, (Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2007), 10.</ref>

According to [[Jim Hoggan]], "public relations is not by definition 'spin'. Public relations is the art of building good relationships. You do that most effectively by earning trust and goodwill among those who are important to you and your business... Spin is to public relations what manipulation is to interpersonal communications. It's a diversion whose primary effect is ultimately to undermine the central goal of building trust and nurturing a good relationship."<ref>Hoggan, J., Littlemore, R., & Canadian Electronic Library. (2009). Climate cover-up : The crusade to deny global warming / James Hoggan and Richard Littlemore. (DesLibris. Books collection). Vancouver [B.C.]: Greystone Books.</ref>

The techniques of spin include selectively presenting facts and quotes that support ideal positions ([[Cherry picking (fallacy)|cherry picking]]), the so-called "[[non-denial denial]]", phrasing that in a way presumes unproven truths, [[euphemism]]s for drawing attention away from items considered distasteful, and ambiguity in public statements. Another spin technique involves careful choice of timing in the release of certain news so it can take advantage of prominent events in the news.

=== Negative ===
{{see also|Negative campaigning}}
Negative public relations, also called dark public relations (DPR), 'black hat PR' and in some earlier writing "Black PR", is a process of destroying the target's reputation and/or [[corporate identity]]. The objective in DPR is to discredit someone else, who may pose a threat to the client's business or be a political rival. DPR may rely on [[IT security]], [[industrial espionage]], [[social engineering (security)|social engineering]] and [[competitive intelligence]]. Common techniques include using dirty secrets from the target, producing misleading facts to fool a competitor.<ref>Wattenberg, Martin P. (22 August 1996). Negative Campaign Advertising: Demobilizer or Mobilizer. eScholarship Repository. UC Irvine, Department of Politics and Society. Retrieved on 29 January 2005</ref><ref>Bike, William S. (28 March 2004). Campaign Guide: [[Negative campaigning|Negative Campaigning]]. CompleteCampaigns.com. City: San Diego. Retrieved on 3 August 2005.</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Saletan|first=William|author-link=William Saletan  |date=25 November 1999 |title=Three Cheers for Negative Campaigning |magazine=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]  |location= Washington }}</ref><ref>Does Attack Advertising Demobilize the Electorate? Stephen Ansolabehere, Shanto Iyengar, Adam Simon, Nicholas Valentino, 1994, [[American Political Science Review]], 88:829–838; Winning, But Losing, Ansolabehere and Iyenger, 1996</ref> In politics, a decision to use negative PR is also known as [[negative campaigning]].

=== T.A.R.E.S. ===
The T.A.R.E.S. is a five-point test that evaluates ethical persuasion and provides boundaries in persuasive practices.

* '''''Truthfulness''''' (of the message) examples
** Is this communicating something factually true and accurate?
** Does this downplay or diminish evidence?
** Am I creating a false narrative or image?
** Does this influence people to believe something that I do not believe myself?
* '''''Authenticity''''' (of the persuader) examples
** Will people question my honesty or integrity from this?
** Do I truly believe that what is being presented will benefit those who are reading?
** Do I support or advocate in the statement, person, or product?
* '''''Respect''''' (for the persuadee) examples
** Am I presenting statements in self-interest, or do I genuinely care about the issue, person, or product?
** Is this presented to persuadees who are rational, self-thinking beings?
** What ethical responsibility do I hold by presenting this information?
* '''''Equity''''' (of the persuasive appeal) examples
** Is this appeal fair and nondiscriminatory?
** Have I target persuadees who are not capable of understanding the claims and the context?
** Are the statements I present sensitive to various interests, needs, or concerns of the persuadees? 
* '''''Social Responsibility''''' (for the common good) examples
** Have I unfairly stereotyped groups of society in my statements or actions?
** Will my statements or actions cause harms to various groups of society?
** Will there be any negative consequences against a group in society based on my statements or actions? 
** Have I fairly presented issues that concern groups who may have been underrepresented in society? 
** Are the statements or actions that are being communicated responsible to various societal groups, public interest, and the public?<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Baker|first1=Sherry|last2=Martinson|first2=David L.|year=2001|title=The TARES Test: Five Principles for Ethical Persuasion|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233168773|website=ResearchGate|access-date=30 November 2020|archive-date=22 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322114550/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233168773_The_TARES_test_Five_principles_for_ethical_persuasion|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Politics and civil society ===
In ''[[Propaganda (book)|Propaganda]]'' (1928), [[Edward Bernays|Bernays]] argued that the manipulation of public opinion was a necessary part of democracy.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://archive.org/details/EdwardLBernays-Propaganda| title = Edward Bernays ''Propaganda'' (1928) p. 10}}</ref> In public relations, [[lobby groups]] are created to influence government policy, corporate policy or [[public opinion]], typically in a way that benefits the sponsoring organization.

In fact, Bernays stresses that we are in fact dominated in almost every aspect of our lives, by a relatively small number of persons who have mastered the 'mental processes and social patterns of the masses,' which include our behavior, political and economic spheres or our morals.<ref>Edward Bernays, "Organizing Chaos," in Propaganda, (New York: H. Liverlight, 1928), 10.</ref> In theory, each individual chooses his own opinion on behavior and public issues. However, in practice, it is impossible for one to study all variables and approaches of a particular question and come to a conclusion without any external influence. This is the reason why the society has agreed upon an 'invisible government' to interpret on our behalf information and narrow the choice field to a more practical scale.<ref>Edward Bernays, "Organizing Chaos," in Propaganda, (New York: H. Liverlight, 1928), 11.</ref>

When a lobby group hides its true purpose and support base, it is known as a [[front group]].<ref>See Peter Viggo Jakobsen, ''Focus on the CNN Effect Misses the Point: The Real Media Impact on Conflict Management is Invisible and Indirect'', Journal of Peace Research, vol.37, no.2. Institute of Political Science, University of Copenhagen (2000).</ref> Front groups are a form of [[astroturfing]], because they intend to sway the public or the government without disclosing their financial connection to corporate or political interests. They create a fake grass-roots movement by giving the appearance of a trusted organization that serves the public, when they actually serve their sponsors.

Politicians also employ public relations professionals to help project their views, policies and even personalities to their best advantages.<ref>{{citation|title=On the Record: Politics, Politicians and Power|first=Laurie|last=Oakes|page=191|year=2010|publisher=Hachette Australia|isbn=978-0-7336-2700-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Farmer|first=Yanick|date=2 January 2018|title=Ethical Decision Making and Reputation Management in Public Relations|journal=Journal of Media Ethics|volume=33|issue=1|pages=2–13|doi=10.1080/23736992.2017.1401931|s2cid=158618395|issn=2373-6992|url=http://archipel.uqam.ca/12464/1/Ethical%20Decision%20Making%20and%20Reputation%20Management%20in%20Public%20Relations.pdf|access-date=14 January 2020|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620144748/https://archipel.uqam.ca/12464/1/Ethical%20Decision%20Making%20and%20Reputation%20Management%20in%20Public%20Relations.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Reputation laundering===
{{main|Reputation laundering}}
Some PR firms perform [[reputation laundering]] services.  In these situations, a client will hire a PR firm to conceal unethical, corrupt, or criminal behavior. The PR firm will supply services that improve the client's reputation and obscure the client's history, such as: arranging publication of positive press, coordinating donations to charities, arranging sponsorships and advertising (such as of sports teams), arranging attendance at major social events, and recommending prominent associations that the client can join.<ref>''The United Nations and Transnational Organized Crime'', p. 166, Phil Williams, Ernesto Ugo Savona, Psychology Press, 1996.</ref><ref name="GUARD2010">{{Cite web |date=2010-08-03 |title=PR firms make London world capital of reputation laundering |url=http://www.theguardian.com/media/2010/aug/03/london-public-relations-reputation-laundering |access-date=2022-11-11 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref name="NED">"Waking up to Reputation Laundering as a Mechanism for Transnational Kleptocracy"  Melissa Aten, John Glenn (editors) March 2022, National Endowment for Democracy, https://www.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Global-Insights-Waking-up-to-Reputation-Laundering-as-a-Mechanism-for-Transnational-Kleptocracy.pdf</ref>  Other mechanisms employed by PR firms on behalf of the purportedly corrupt or criminal customers include [[Sock puppet account|fake social media accounts]], [[Fake blog|blogs by fake personalities]], or partisan op-eds.<ref>''Media and Mass Atrocity: The Rwanda Genocide and Beyond'' Allan Thompson, p 509, 2019, McGill-Queen's Press. "So-called 'black' public relations (PR) firms have also played an important role as hired proxies for state-sponsored trolling attacks, notably Bahrain.  These firms offer 'reputation laundering' services, which take many forms,  including..."</ref>

Notable PR firms that have engaged in reputation laundering include British PR firm [[Bell Pottinger]], which employed reputation laundering in support of clients such as [[Alexander Lukashenko]], [[Bahrain]], and the Pinochet Foundation.<ref name="UKPR">{{Cite web |date=2017-09-05 |title='Reputation laundering' is lucrative business for London PR firms |url=http://www.theguardian.com/media/2017/sep/05/reputation-laundering-is-lucrative-business-for-london-pr-firms |access-date=2022-11-11 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref>  PR firms [[Havas]], [[Publicis]], and [[Qorvis]] were hired by Saudi Arabia to perform reputation laundering after [[9/11]] and the [[assassination of Jamal Khashoggi]].<ref name="NED"/> Most beneficiaries of reputational laundering are politicians or politically affiliated individuals and organizations, but this type of PR can also be employed by businesses and non-politicians. 
  
The [[United Kingdom]] government published reports  stating that Russian oligarchs had been "extending patronage and building influence across a wide sphere of the British establishment" and had employed public relations firms that were "willing beneficiaries, contributing to a ‘reputation laundering' process".<ref name="FINTIM">{{Cite news |last=Thomas |first=Daniel |date=2022-05-04 |title=British accountants and PR firms told to cut Russia ties |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/f79e55e7-dd07-4fab-b7b8-fa2991a4c4d0 |access-date=2023-05-24}}</ref><ref>"Economic crime in the UK: a multi-billion pound problem"  Oliver Bennett MBE, Ali Shalchi 6 April 2022,'' House of Commons Library'' https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9013/CBP-9013.pdf</ref><ref name="UKREP">{{Cite web |date=2020-07-21 |title=Government response to Intelligence and Security Committee Russia Report |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/government-response-to-intelligence-and-security-committee-russia-report |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>