Editing Pacifism (section)

===Modern history===
[[File:Edward Hicks - Penn's Treaty.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Penn's Treaty with the Indians|Penn's Treaty]] with the Lenape]]

Beginning in the 16th century, the [[Protestant Reformation]] gave rise to a variety of new Christian sects, including the [[Peace churches|historic peace churches]]. Foremost among them were the [[Religious Society of Friends]] (Quakers), [[Amish]], [[Mennonites]], [[Hutterites]], and [[Church of the Brethren]]. The humanist writer [[Desiderius Erasmus]] was one of the most outspoken pacifists of the [[Renaissance]], arguing strongly against warfare in his essays ''[[The Praise of Folly]]'' (1509) and ''The Complaint of Peace'' (1517).<ref name="fsn" /><ref>"Erasmus, Desiderius" by Garrett L. McAinsh, in ''The World Encyclopedia of Peace''.Edited by [[Linus Pauling]], [[Ervin László]], and [[Jong Youl Yoo]]. Oxford : Pergamon, 1986. {{ISBN|0080326854}}, (Volume 1, p. 293).</ref>

The [[Quakers]] were prominent advocates of pacifism, who as early as 1660 had repudiated violence in all forms and adhered to a strictly pacifist interpretation of [[Christianity]]. They stated their beliefs in a declaration to [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]]:
<blockquote> "We utterly deny all outward wars and strife, and fightings with outward weapons, for any end, or under any pretense whatever; this is our testimony to the whole world. The Spirit of Christ&nbsp;... which leads us into all truth, will never move us to fight and war against any man with outward weapons, neither for the kingdom of Christ, nor for the kingdoms of this world.<ref>{{cite web |last=Eric Roberts |title=Quaker Traditions of Pacifism and Nonviolence |url=http://events.stanford.edu/events/352/35227/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203022623/http://events.stanford.edu/events/352/35227/ |archive-date=2013-12-03 |access-date=2013-12-02 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref></blockquote>

Throughout the many 18th century wars in which [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] participated, the Quakers maintained a principled commitment [[Conscientious objector|not to serve in the army and militia]] or even to pay the alternative £10 fine.

The English Quaker [[William Penn]], who founded the [[Province of Pennsylvania]], employed an anti-militarist public policy. Unlike residents of many of the colonies, Quakers chose to trade peacefully with the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], including for land. The colonial province was, for the 75 years from 1681 to 1756, essentially unarmed and experienced little or no warfare in that period.

From the 16th to the 18th centuries, a number of thinkers devised plans for an international organisation that would promote peace, and reduce or even eliminate the occurrence of war. These included the French politician [[Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully|Duc de Sully]], the philosophers [[Émeric Crucé]] and the [[Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre|Abbe de Saint-Pierre]], and the English Quakers William Penn and [[John Bellers]].<ref>''Power and the Pursuit of Peace: Theory and Practice in the History of Relations between States'', by [[Francis Harry Hinsley]], Cambridge University Press, 1967, {{ISBN|0521094488}}, (pp.&nbsp;13–45).</ref><ref>"Thinking About Peace in History" by [[Charles Chatfield]], in ''The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective : Essays in Honour of Peter Brock'', edited by [[Harvey L. Dyck]]. Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1996, {{ISBN|0802007775}} (pp.&nbsp;36–51).</ref>

Pacifist ideals emerged from two strands of thought that coalesced at the end of the 18th century. One, rooted in the secular [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], promoted peace as the rational antidote to the world's ills, while the other was a part of the [[Evangelicalism|evangelical religious revival]] that had played an important part in the campaign for the [[abolitionism|abolition of slavery]]. Representatives of the former included [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], in ''Extrait du Projet de Paix Perpetuelle de Monsieur l'Abbe Saint-Pierre'' (1756),<ref>Hinsley, pp.&nbsp;46–61.</ref> [[Immanuel Kant]], in his ''Thoughts on Perpetual Peace'',<ref>Hinsley, pp.&nbsp;62–80.</ref> and [[Jeremy Bentham]] who proposed the formation of a peace association in 1789. Representative of the latter, was [[William Wilberforce]] who thought that strict limits should be imposed on British involvement in the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] based on Christian ideals of peace and brotherhood. [[Bohemia]]n [[Bernard Bolzano]] taught about the social waste of militarism and the needlessness of war. He urged a total reform of the educational, social, and economic systems that would direct the nation's interests toward peace rather than toward armed conflict between nations.

During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, pacifism was not entirely frowned upon throughout Europe. It was considered a political stance against costly capitalist-imperialist wars, a notion particularly popular in the [[British Liberal party|British Liberal Party]] of the twentieth century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schuyler |first=Robert Livingston |year=1922 |title=The Rise of Anti-Imperialism in England |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=440–4471 |doi=10.2307/2142146 |jstor=2142146}}</ref> However, during the eras of [[World War One]] and especially [[World War Two]], public opinion on the ideology split. Those against the Second World War, some argued, were not fighting against unnecessary wars of imperialism but instead acquiescing to the [[fascists]] of [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[Japan]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eller |first=Cynthia |year=1990 |title=Oral History as Moral Discourse: Conscientious Objectors and the Second World War |journal=The Oral History Review |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=45–75 |doi=10.1093/ohr/18.1.45 |jstor=3674738}}</ref>

====Peace movements====
During the period of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], although no formal [[peace movement]] was established until the end of hostilities, a significant peace movement animated by universalist ideals did emerge, due to the perception of Britain fighting in a [[reactionary]] role and the increasingly visible impact of the war on the welfare of the nation in the form of higher taxation levels and high casualty rates. Sixteen peace petitions to [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] were signed by members of the public, anti-war and anti-[[William Pitt the Younger|Pitt]] demonstrations convened and peace literature was widely published and disseminated.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ceadel, Martin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lx4xr3PsdI8C&q=freemason+hall+1843+london+peace |title=The Origins of War Prevention: The British Peace Movement and International Relations, 1730–1854 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0198226741}}</ref>

[[File:Henry Richard, Vanity Fair, 1880-09-04.jpg|thumb|upright|"Peace". Caricature of [[Henry Richard]], a prominent advocate of pacifism in the mid-19th century]]

The first peace movements appeared in 1815–16. In the United States the first such movement was the [[New York Peace Society]], founded in 1815 by the theologian [[David Low Dodge]], and the [[Massachusetts Peace Society]]. It became an active organization, holding regular weekly meetings, and producing literature which was spread as far as [[Gibraltar]] and Malta, describing the horrors of war and advocating pacificism on [[Christianity|Christian]] grounds.<ref>''Pacifism to 1914 : an overview'' by Peter Brock. Toronto, Thistle Printing, 1994. (pp.&nbsp;38–39).</ref> The [[Peace Society|London Peace Society]] (also known as the Society for the Promotion of Permanent and Universal Peace) was formed in 1816 to promote permanent and universal peace by the [[philanthropy|philanthropist]] [[William Allen (philanthropist)|William Allen]]. In the 1840s, British women formed "Olive Leaf Circles", groups of around 15 to 20 women, to discuss and promote pacifist ideas.<ref>''The Long Road to Greenham : Feminism and Anti-Militarism in Britain since 1820'', by [[Jill Liddington]]. London, Virago, 1989 {{ISBN|0860686884}} (pp.&nbsp;14–15).</ref>

The peace movement began to grow in influence by the mid-nineteenth century.<ref>Gavin B. Henderson, "The Pacifists of the Fifties" ''Journal of Modern History'' 9#3 (1937), pp. 314–341, on British developments. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1898869 online]</ref> The London Peace Society, under the initiative of American consul [[Elihu Burritt]] and the reverend [[Henry Richard]], convened the first [[International Peace Congress]] in London in 1843.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cortright, David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JCgvvXUzu-oC |title=Peace: A History of Movements and Ideas |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1139471855}}</ref> The congress decided on two aims: the ideal of peaceable arbitration in the affairs of nations and the creation of an international institution to achieve that. [[Henry Richard|Richard]] became the secretary of the Peace Society in 1850 on a full-time basis, a position which he would keep for the next 40 years, earning himself a reputation as the 'Apostle of Peace'. He helped secure one of the earliest victories for the peace movement by securing a commitment from the [[Great Power]]s in the [[Treaty of Paris (1856)]] at the end of the [[Crimean War]], in favour of arbitration. On the European continent, wracked by [[1848 Revolution|social upheaval]], the first peace congress was held in [[Brussels]] in 1848 followed by [[Paris]] a year later.<ref>{{cite web |last=André Durand |title=Gustave Moynier and the peace societies |url=http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jnaw.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308023153/https://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jnaw.htm |archive-date=8 March 2016 |access-date=2 December 2013 |publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]}}</ref>

After experiencing a recession in support due to the resurgence of militarism during the [[American Civil War]] and [[Crimean War]], the movement began to spread across Europe and began to infiltrate the new socialist movements. In 1870, [[Randal Cremer]] formed the [[International Arbitration League|Workman's Peace Association]] in London. Cremer, alongside the French economist [[Frédéric Passy]] was also the founding father of the first international organisation for the arbitration of conflicts in 1889, the [[Inter-Parliamentary Union]]. The [[National Peace Council]] was founded in after the 17th [[Universal Peace Congress]] in London (July August 1908).

An important thinker who contributed to pacifist ideology was Russian writer [[Leo Tolstoy]]. In one of his latter works, ''[[The Kingdom of God Is Within You]]'', Tolstoy provides a detailed history, account and defense of pacifism. Tolstoy's work inspired a [[Tolstoyan movement|movement named after him]] advocating pacifism to arise in Russia and elsewhere.<ref>''Tolstoy's Pacifism'', by [[Colm McKeogh]], Cambria Press, 2009, {{ISBN|1604976349}}, (pp.&nbsp;105–107).</ref> The book was a major early influence on [[Mahatma Gandhi]], and the two engaged in regular correspondence while Gandhi was active in South Africa.<ref>''Pacifism in the Twentieth Century'', by [[Peter Brock]] and [[Nigel Young]]. Syracuse University Press, New York, 1999 {{ISBN|0815681259}} (p. 73)</ref>

[[Bertha von Suttner]], the first woman to be a [[Nobel Peace Prize]] laureate, became a leading figure in the peace movement with the publication of her novel, ''Die Waffen nieder!'' ("Lay Down Your Arms!") in 1889 and founded an Austrian pacifist organization in 1891.

====Nonviolent resistance====
[[File:WeFightCartoon.jpg|thumb|left|"Leading Citizens want War and declare War; Citizens Who are Led fight the War" 1910 cartoon]]

In [[Colony of New Zealand|colonial New Zealand]], during the latter half of the 19th century [[European settlers in New Zealand|European settlers]] used numerous tactics to confiscate land from the indigenous [[Māori people|Māori]], including [[New Zealand Wars|warfare]]. In the 1870s and 1880s, [[Parihaka]], then reported to be the largest Māori settlement in New Zealand, became the centre of a major campaign of non-violent resistance to land confiscations. One Māori leader, [[Te Whiti-o-Rongomai]], quickly became the leading figure in the movement, stating in a speech that "Though some, in darkness of heart, seeing their land ravished, might wish to take arms and kill the aggressors, I say it must not be. Let not the Pakehas think to succeed by reason of their guns... I want not war". Te Whiti-o-Rongomai achieved renown for his non-violent tactics among the Māori, which proved more successful in preventing land confiscations than acts of violent resistance.<ref>{{cite web |last=Winder |first=Virginia |title=Conflict and Protest – Pacifist of Parihaka – Te Whiti o Rongomai |url=http://www.pukeariki.com/en/stories/conflict/pacifistofparihaka.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705092832/http://www.pukeariki.com/en/stories/conflict/pacifistofparihaka.htm |archive-date=5 July 2009 |access-date=29 July 2007}}</ref>

[[Mahatma Gandhi]] was a major political and spiritual leader of India, instrumental in the [[Indian independence movement]]. The Nobel prize winning great poet [[Rabindranath Tagore]], who was also an Indian, gave him the honorific "[[Mahatma]]", usually translated "Great Soul". He was the pioneer of a brand of nonviolence (or ''[[ahimsa]]'') which he called ''[[satyagraha]]''{{snd}}translated literally as "truth force". This was the resistance of tyranny through civil disobedience that was not only nonviolent but also sought to change the heart of the opponent. He contrasted this with ''duragraha'', "resistant force", which sought only to change behaviour with stubborn protest. During his 30 years of work (1917–1947) for the independence of his country from [[British Raj|British colonial rule]], Gandhi led dozens of nonviolent campaigns, spent over seven years in prison, and [[Hunger strike|fasted nearly to the death]] on several occasions to obtain British compliance with a demand or to stop inter-communal violence. His efforts helped lead India to independence in 1947, and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom worldwide.

====World War I====
[[File:The Deserter.jpg|alt=|thumb|right|''The Deserter'' (1916) by [[Boardman Robinson]]]]

Peace movements became active in the Western world after 1900, often focusing on treaties that would settle disputes through arbitration, and efforts to support the Hague conventions.<ref>Neil Hollander,  ''Elusive Dove: The Search for Peace During World War I'' (2014), ch 1 [https://books.google.com/books?id=RZHLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 excerpt]</ref>

The sudden outbreak of the [[First World War]] in July 1914 dismayed the peace movement. Socialist parties in every industrial nation had committed themselves to antiwar policies, but when the war came, all of them, except in Russia and the United States, supported their own governments. There were highly publicized dissidents, some of whom were imprisoned for opposing draft laws, such as [[Eugene Debs]] in the U.S.<ref>Harry W. Laidler, Harry W. ''Socialism in thought and action'' (1920) covers wartime roles in many countries [https://archive.org/details/socialisminthoug00laidiala/page/n44 <!-- pg=1 quote=harry laidler socialism. --> online].</ref> In Britain, the prominent activist [[Stephen Henry Hobhouse]] was jailed for refusing military service, citing his convictions as a "socialist and a Christian".<ref>Hochschild, Adam, ''To end all wars : a story of loyalty and rebellion, 1914–1918'', p. 277, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011, {{ISBN|0618758283}}</ref> Many [[socialism|socialist]] groups and movements were [[antimilitarist]], arguing that war by its nature was a type of governmental coercion of the [[working class]] for the benefit of [[capitalism|capitalist]] elites. The French socialist pacifist leader [[Jean Jaurès]] was assassinated by a nationalist fanatic on 31 July 1914. The national parties in the [[Second International]] increasingly supported their respective nations in war, and the International was dissolved in 1916.

[[File:Peace-Marcher.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A World War I-era female peace protester]]

In 1915, the [[League of Nations Society]] was formed by British [[liberalism|liberal]] leaders to promote a strong international organisation that could enforce the peaceful resolution of conflict. Later that year, the [[League to Enforce Peace]] was established in the U.S. to promote similar goals. [[Hamilton Holt]] published a 28 September 1914, editorial in his magazine the ''Independent'' called "The Way to Disarm: A Practical Proposal" that called for an international organization to agree upon the arbitration of disputes and to guarantee the territorial integrity of its members by maintaining military forces sufficient to defeat those of any non-member. The ensuing debate among prominent internationalists modified Holt's plan to align it more closely with proposals offered in Great Britain by [[James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce|Viscount James Bryce]], a former British ambassador to the United States.<ref>Herman, 56–57</ref> These and other initiatives were pivotal in the change in attitudes that gave birth to the [[League of Nations]] after the war.

In addition to the traditional peace churches, some of the many groups that protested against the war were the [[Woman's Peace Party]] (which was organized in 1915 and led by noted reformer [[Jane Addams]]), the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace (ICWPP) (also organized in 1915),<ref>[https://archive.today/20021108014655/http://www.binghamton.edu/womhist/milit/intro.htm Pacifism vs. Patriotism in Women's Organizations in the 1920s]. {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> the [[American Union Against Militarism]], the [[Fellowship of Reconciliation]] and the [[American Friends Service Committee]].<ref>[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090628120559/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_gx5215/is_2002/ai_n19132457/pg_2 Chatfield, Charles, "Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy" 2002].</ref> [[Jeannette Rankin]], the first woman elected to Congress, was another fierce advocate of pacifism, the only person to vote against American entrance into both wars.

====Between the two World Wars====
[[File:Красноармейцы-пацифисты.png|thumb|The soldiers of the Red Army in Russia, who on religious grounds refused to shoot at the target (evangelicals or Baptists). Between 1918 and 1929]]

After the immense loss of nearly ten million men to [[trench warfare]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rauchensteiner |first=Manfried |title=The First World War |year=2014|publisher=Böhlau Verlag |isbn=978-3205793656 |location=Wien |doi=10.7767/boehlau.9783205793656|url=https://www.doabooks.org/doab?func=fulltext&uiLanguage=en&rid=16519 }}{{page needed|date=May 2021}}</ref> a sweeping change of attitude toward [[militarism]] crashed over Europe, particularly in nations such as Great Britain, where many questioned its involvement in the war. After World War I's official end in 1918, peace movements across the continent and the United States renewed, gradually gaining popularity among young Europeans who grew up in the shadow of Europe's trauma over the Great War. Organizations formed in this period included the [[War Resisters' International]],<ref>''Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963'' by Scott H. Bennett. New York, Syracuse University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|081563028X}}, p. 18.</ref> the [[Women's International League for Peace and Freedom]], the [[No More War Movement]], the [[Service Civil International]] and the [[Peace Pledge Union]] (PPU). The [[League of Nations]] also convened several disarmament conferences in the interbellum period such as the [[Geneva Naval Conference|Geneva Conference]], though the support that pacifist policy and idealism received varied across European nations. These organizations and movements attracted tens of thousands of Europeans, spanning most professions including "scientists, artists, musicians, politicians, clerks, students, activists and thinkers."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kramer |first=Ann |title=Conscientious Objectors of the Second World War: Refusing to Fight |year=2013 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1783469376}}{{page needed|date=May 2021}}</ref>

=====Great Britain=====
Pacifism and revulsion with war were very popular sentiments in 1920s Britain. Novels and poems on the theme of the futility of war and the slaughter of the youth by old fools were published, including, [[Death of a Hero]] by [[Richard Aldington]], [[Erich Remarque]]'s translated [[All Quiet on the Western Front]] and [[Beverley Nichols]]'s expose ''Cry Havoc''. A debate at the [[University of Oxford]] in 1933 on the motion 'one must fight for King and country' captured the changed mood when the motion was resoundingly defeated. [[Hugh Richard Lawrie Sheppard|Dick Sheppard]] established the [[Peace Pledge Union]] in 1934, which totally renounced war and aggression. The idea of collective security was also popular; instead of outright pacifism, the public generally exhibited a determination to stand up to aggression, but preferably with the use of economic sanctions and multilateral negotiations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pacifism |url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Hom-c5.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203103202/http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Hom-c5.html |archive-date=3 December 2013 |access-date=2 December 2013 |publisher=[[University of Wellington]]}}</ref> Many members of the Peace Pledge Union later joined the [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Learning from the Bruderhof: An Intentional Christian Community |language=en |work=ChristLife |url=https://christlife.org/blog/learning-from-the-bruderhof-an-intentional-christian-community |access-date=27 August 2018 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407004601/https://christlife.org/blog/learning-from-the-bruderhof-an-intentional-christian-community |url-status=dead }}</ref> during its period of residence in the Cotswolds, where Englishmen and Germans, many of whom were Jewish, lived side by side despite local persecution.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Randall |first1=Ian M. |title=A Christian Peace Experiment: The Bruderhof Community in Britain, 1933–1942 |last2=Wright |first2=Nigel G. |year=2018|publisher=Cascade Books |isbn=978-1532639982 |language=en}}</ref><!-- This formerly read "English, Jews and Germans", but this implies that Englishmen and Germans could not be Jewish. -->

[[File:Prats-de-Mollo Children's Home.jpg|thumb|left|Refugees from the Spanish Civil War at the [[War Resisters' International]] children's refuge in the French Pyrenees]]

The British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] had a strong pacifist wing in the early 1930s, and between 1931 and 1935 it was led by [[George Lansbury]], a Christian pacifist who later chaired the No More War Movement and was president of the PPU. The 1933 annual conference resolved unanimously to "pledge itself to take no part in war". Researcher Richard Toye writes that "Labour's official position, however, although based on the aspiration towards a world socialist commonwealth and the outlawing of war, did not imply a renunciation of force under all circumstances, but rather support for the ill-defined concept of 'collective security' under the League of Nations. At the same time, on the party's left, [[Stafford Cripps]]'s small but vocal [[Socialist League (UK, 1932)|Socialist League]] opposed the official policy, on the non-pacifist ground that the League of Nations was 'nothing but the tool of the satiated imperialist powers'."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toye |first=R. |date=1 January 2001 |title=The Labour Party and the Economics of Rearmament, 1935–39 |journal=Twentieth Century British History |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=303–326 |doi=10.1093/tcbh/12.3.303 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10036/26952}}</ref>

Lansbury was eventually persuaded to resign as Labour leader by the non-pacifist wing of the party and was replaced by [[Clement Attlee]].<ref>Rhiannon Vickers, ''Labour and the World'', Manchester University Press, 2004, {{ISBN|978-0719067457}}</ref> As the threat from [[Nazi Germany]] increased in the 1930s, the Labour Party abandoned its pacifist position and supported rearmament, largely as the result of the efforts of [[Ernest Bevin]] and [[Hugh Dalton]], who by 1937 had also persuaded the party to oppose [[Neville Chamberlain]]'s policy of [[appeasement]].<ref>A.J.Davies, ''To Build A New Jerusalem: The British Labour Party from Keir Hardie to Tony Blair'', Abacus, 1996</ref>

The [[League of Nations]] attempted to play its role in ensuring world peace in the 1920s and 1930s. However, with the increasingly revisionist and aggressive behaviour of Nazi Germany, [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]] and [[Imperial Japan]], it ultimately failed to maintain such a world order. [[Economic sanctions]] were used against states that committed aggression, such as those against Italy when it [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|invaded Abyssinia]], but there was no will on the part of the principal League powers, Britain and France, to subordinate their interests to a multilateral process or to disarm at all themselves.

=====Spain=====
The [[Spanish Civil War]] proved a major test for international pacifism, and the work of pacifist organisations (such as [[War Resisters' International]] and the [[Fellowship of Reconciliation]]) and individuals (such as [[José Brocca]] and [[Amparo Poch y Gascón|Amparo Poch]]) in that arena has until recently{{when|date=May 2011}} been ignored or forgotten by historians, overshadowed by the memory of the [[International Brigades]] and other militaristic interventions. Shortly after the war ended, [[Simone Weil]], despite having volunteered for service on the republican side, went on to publish ''[[The Iliad or the Poem of Force]]'', a work that has been described as a pacifist manifesto.<ref name="NYB">{{cite web |title=War and the Iliad |url=http://www.nybooks.com/shop/product?usca_p=t&product_id=4551 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501053342/http://www.nybooks.com/shop/product?usca_p=t&product_id=4551 |archive-date=1 May 2008 |access-date=29 September 2009 |publisher=The New York Review of books}}</ref> In response to the threat of fascism, some pacifist thinkers, such as [[Richard B. Gregg]], devised plans for a campaign of [[nonviolent resistance]] in the event of a fascist invasion or takeover.<ref>Lynd, Staughton. ''Nonviolence in America: a documentary history'', Bobbs-Merrill, 1966, (pps.&nbsp;271–296).</ref>

=====France=====
As the prospect of a second major war began to seem increasingly inevitable, much of France adopted pacifist views, though some historians argue that France felt more war anxiety than a moral objection to a second war. Hitler's spreading influence and territory posed an enormous threat to French livelihood from their neighbors. The French countryside had been devastated during World War I and the entire nation was reluctant to subject its territory to the same treatment. Though all countries in the First World War had suffered great losses, France was one of the most devastated and many did not want a second war.<ref>{{cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://paxchristi.org.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/The-First-World-War-in-Numbers.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206102558/http://paxchristi.org.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/The-First-World-War-in-Numbers.pdf |archive-date=6 December 2018 |access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>

=====Germany=====
{{Main|Pacifism in Germany}}

As Germany dealt with the burdens of the Treaty of Versailles, a conflict arose in the 1930s between German Christianity and German nationalism. Many Germans found the terms of the treaty debilitating and humiliating, so German nationalism offered a way to regain the country's pride. German Christianity warned against the risks of entering a war similar to the previous one. As the German depression worsened and fascism began to rise in Germany, a greater tide of Germans began to sway toward Hitler's brand of nationalism that would come to crush pacifism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Conway |first=John S. |year=2003 |title=Review of Christian Pacifism confronts German Nationalism – The Ecumenical Movement and the Cause of Peace in Germany, 1914–1933; Der Weltbund für Freundschaftsarbeit der Kirchen, 1914–1948. Eine ökumenische Friedensorganisation |journal=Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=491–497 |jstor=43751708}}</ref>

====World War II====
[[File:Berkeley, California. University of California Student Peace Strike - NARA - 532103 (cropped).tif|thumb|A peace strike rally at [[University of California, Berkeley]], April 1940]]

With the start of [[World War II]], pacifist and antiwar sentiment declined in nations affected by the war. Even the communist-controlled [[American Peace Mobilization]] reversed its antiwar activism once Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. After the [[Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor]], the [[Non-interventionism|non-interventionist]] [[America First Committee]] dropped its opposition to American involvement in the war and disbanded,<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 December 1941 |title=America First Acts to End Organization |page=22 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> but many smaller religious and socialist groups continued their opposition to war.

=====Great Britain=====
[[Bertrand Russell]] argued that the necessity of defeating [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazis]] was a unique circumstance in which war was not the worst of the possible evils; he called his position ''relative pacifism''. Shortly before the outbreak of war, British writers such as [[E. M. Forster]], [[Leonard Woolf]], [[David Garnett]] and [[Storm Jameson]] all rejected their earlier pacifism and endorsed military action against Nazism.<ref>Ian Patterson, "Pacifists and Conscientious Objectors", in Adam Piette and Mark Rawlinson, ''The Edinburgh Companion to Twentieth-Century British and American War Literature'', Edinburgh University Press, 2012. {{ISBN|0748638741}}  (p. 311).</ref> Similarly, [[Albert Einstein]] wrote: "I loathe all armies and any kind of violence; yet I'm firmly convinced that at present these hateful weapons offer the only effective protection."<ref>Quoted on [http://www.ppu.org.uk/learn/infodocs/people/pp-einstein2.html Albert Einstein] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009142749/http://www.ppu.org.uk//learn/infodocs/people/pp-einstein2.html |date=9 October 2007 }} at Peace Pledge Union, and but also discussed in detail in articles in Einstein, Albert (1954), ''Ideas and Opinions'', New York: Random House, {{ISBN|0517003937}}</ref> The British pacifists [[Reginald Sorensen, Baron Sorensen|Reginald Sorensen]] and [[Cecil John Cadoux|C. J. Cadoux]], while bitterly disappointed by the outbreak of war, nevertheless urged their fellow pacifists "not to obstruct the war effort."<ref>Martin Ceadel, ''Pacifism in Britain, 1914–1945 : The Defining of a Faith''. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1980. {{ISBN|0198218826}} (pp.&nbsp;298–299).</ref>

Pacifists across Great Britain further struggled to uphold their anti-military values during the [[The Blitz|Blitz]], a coordinated, long-term attack by the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' on Great Britain. As the country was ravaged nightly by German bombing raids, pacifists had to seriously weigh the importance of their political and moral values against the desire to protect their nation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Overy |first=R. |date=1 May 2013 |title=Pacifism and the Blitz, 1940–1941 |journal=Past & Present |issue=219 |pages=201–236 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gtt005}}</ref>

=====France=====
Some scholars theorize that pacifism was the cause of France's rapid fall to the Germans after it was [[Invasion of France (Nazi Germany)|invaded]] by the Nazis in June 1940, resulting in a takeover of the government by the German military. Whether or not pacifism weakened French defenses against the Germans, there was no hope of sustaining a real pacifist movement after Paris fell. Just as peaceful Germans succumbed to violent nationalism, the pacifist French were muzzled by the totality of German control over nearly all of France.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hucker |first=D. |date=15 November 2007 |title=French public attitudes towards the prospect of war in 1938 1939: 'pacifism' or 'war anxiety'? |url=https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/preview/1017511/French%20Public%20Attitudes%20towards%20the%20Prospect%20of%20War%20in%201938-39.pdf |journal=French History |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=431–449 |doi=10.1093/fh/crm060}}</ref>

The French pacifists [[André and Magda Trocmé]] helped conceal hundreds of Jews fleeing the Nazis in the village of [[Le Chambon-sur-Lignon]].<ref name="pph">''Lest Innocent Blood Be Shed: The Story of Le Chambon and How Goodness Happened There'' Philip P. Hallie, (1979)  New York: Harper & Row, {{ISBN|006011701X}}</ref><ref>Brock and Young, p. 220.</ref> After the war, the Trocmés were declared [[Righteous Among the Nations]].<ref name="pph" />

=====Germany=====
Pacifists in [[Nazi Germany]] were dealt with harshly, reducing the movement into almost nonexistence; those who continued to advocate for the end of the war and violence were often sent to labor camps; German pacifist [[Carl von Ossietzky]]<ref>Brock and Young, p. 99.</ref> and [[Olaf Kullmann]], a Norwegian pacifist active during the Nazi occupation,<ref>Brock and Socknat, pp.&nbsp;402–403.</ref> were both imprisoned in concentration camps and died as a result of their mistreatment there. Austrian farmer [[Franz Jägerstätter]] was executed in 1943 for refusing to serve in the [[Wehrmacht]].<ref>''[[In Solitary Witness: The Life and Death of Franz Jägerstätter]]'' by [[Gordon Zahn]].Springfield, Illinois: Templegate Publishers. {{ISBN|087243141X}}.</ref>

German nationalism consumed even the most peaceful of Christians, who may have believed that Hitler was acting in the good faith of Germany or who may have been so suppressed by the Nazi regime that they were content to act as bystanders to the violence occurring around them. [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], an anti-Nazi German pastor who later died in 1945 in the [[Flossenbürg concentration camp]], once wrote in a letter to his grandmother: "The issue really is: Germanism or Christianity."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lovin |first=Robin W. |date=July 1997 |title=Dietrich Bonhoeffer Works Volume 2: Act and Being: Transcendental Philosophy and Ontology in Systematic Theology; Minneapolis, Fortress, 1996. 237 pp. $30.00: Dietrich Bonhoeffer Works Volume 5: Life Together; Prayerbook of the Bible; Minneapolis, Fortress, 1996. 218 pp. $30.00 |journal=Theology Today |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=266–268 |doi=10.1177/004057369705400223 |s2cid=170907892}}</ref>

After the end of the war, it was discovered that "[[The Black Book (list)|The Black Book]]" or ''Sonderfahndungsliste G.B.'', a list of Britons to be arrested in the event of a [[Operation Sealion|successful German invasion of Britain]], included three active pacifists: [[Vera Brittain]], [[Sybil Thorndike]] and [[Aldous Huxley]] (who had left the country).<ref>Reinhard R. Doerries, ''Hitler's Intelligence Chief: Walter Schellenberg'', New York. Enigma Books, 2013 {{ISBN|1936274132}} (p. 33)</ref><ref>William Hetherington, ''Swimming Against the Tide:The Peace Pledge Union Story, 1934–2009''. London; The Peace Pledge Union, {{ISBN|978-0902680517}} (p. 14)</ref>

=====Conscientious objectors=====
There were [[conscientious objectors]] and war [[tax resisters]] in both [[World War I]] and [[World War II]]. The United States government allowed sincere objectors to serve in noncombatant military roles. However, those [[draft dodgers|draft resisters]] who refused any cooperation with the war effort often spent much of the wars in federal prisons. During World War II, pacifist leaders such as [[Dorothy Day]] and [[Ammon Hennacy]] of the [[Catholic Worker Movement]] urged young Americans not to enlist in military service.

During the two world wars, young men conscripted into the military, but who refused to take up arms, were called conscientious objectors. Though these men had to either answer their conscription or face prison time, their status as conscientious objectors permitted them to refuse to take part in battle using weapons, and the military was forced to find a different use for them. Often, these men were assigned various tasks close to battle such as medical duties, though some were assigned various civilian jobs including farming, forestry, hospital work and mining.<ref name="Kramer, Ann 2013">Kramer, Ann. Conscientious Objectors of the Second World War : Refusing to Fight. Pen and Sword, 2013.</ref> Conscientious objectors were often viewed by soldiers as cowards and liars, and they were sometimes accused of shirking military duty out of fear rather than as the result of conscience. In Great Britain during World War II, the majority of the public did not approve of moral objection by soldiers but supported their right to abstain from direct combat. On the more extreme sides of public opinion were those who fully supported the objectors and those who believed they should be executed as traitors.<ref name="Kramer, Ann 2013" /> The World War II objectors were often scorned as fascist sympathizers and traitors, though many of them cited the influence of World War I and their [[shell shock]]ed fathers as major reasons for refusing to participate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kramer |first=Ann |title=Conscientious Objectors of the Second World War: Refusing to Fight |year=2013 |publisher=Barnsley: Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1844681181}}</ref>

====Later 20th century====
[[File:Vietnamdem.jpg|thumb|A demonstrator offers a flower to military police at an [[Opposition to Vietnam War|anti-Vietnam War protest]], 1967.]]
[[File:Massale vredesdemonstratie in Bonn tegen de modernisering van kernwapens in West, Bestanddeelnr 253-8611.jpg|thumb|Protest against the deployment of [[Pershing II]] missiles in Europe, Bonn, West Germany, 1981]]

[[Baptist]] [[Minister of religion|minister]] [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] led a [[civil rights movement]] in the U.S., employing [[Gandhism|Gandhian]] [[nonviolent resistance]] to repeal laws enforcing racial segregation and to work for integration of schools, businesses and government. In 1957, his wife [[Coretta Scott King]], along with [[Albert Schweitzer]], [[Benjamin Spock]] and others, formed the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy (now [[Peace Action]]) to resist the [[nuclear arms race]]. In 1958 British activists formed the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] with Bertrand Russell as its president.

In 1960, [[Thich Nhat Hanh]] came to the U.S. to study [[comparative religion]] at [[Princeton University]] and was subsequently appointed a lecturer in Buddhism at [[Columbia University]]. Nhất Hạnh had written a letter to King in 1965 entitled "Searching for the Enemy of Man" and met with King in 1966 to urge him to publicly denounce the [[Vietnam War]].<ref name="aavw.org" /> In a famous 1967 speech at [[Riverside Church]] in New York City,<ref>[http://www.aavw.org/special_features/speeches_speech_king01.html "Beyond Vietnam"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060820044643/http://www.aavw.org/special_features/speeches_speech_king01.html |date=20 August 2006 }}, 1967-04-04, speech made by King at the Riverside Church, NYC, archived on the African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War website</ref> King publicly questioned the U.S. involvement in Vietnam for the first time.

Other examples from this period include the 1986 [[People Power Revolution]] in the Philippines led by [[Cory Aquino|Corazon Aquino]] and the 1989 [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|Tiananmen Square protests]], with the broadly publicized "[[Tank Man]]" incident as its indelible image.

On 1 December 1948, President [[José Figueres Ferrer]] of Costa Rica abolished the [[military of Costa Rica|Costa Rican military]].<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2019.htm "Costa Rica"] . U.S. Department of State.</ref> In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Costa Rican constitution. The budget previously dedicated to the military is now dedicated to providing healthcare services and education.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/07/opinion/07kristof.html?_r=1 "The Happiest People"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224163549/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/07/opinion/07kristof.html?_r=1 |date=24 December 2016}}. ''The New York Times''. 6 January 2010.</ref>

Within the halls of academe, several philosophers endeavored to demonstrate that the theoretical principles underlying secular pacifism could be successfully applied in order to resolve several unique forms of international conflict which emerged as the 20th century came to a close. Included in this group is [[Robert L. Holmes]], who illustrates that four principles of "moral personalism" can be utilized within the context of both [[nuclear war]] and [[terrorism]] in order to promote an ethically viable outcome.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2185583.pdf | jstor=2185583 | last1=Meyers | first1=Diana T. | title=Reviewed work: On War and Morality, Robert L. Holmes | journal=The Philosophical Review | date=1992 | volume=101 | issue=2 | pages=481–484 | doi=10.2307/2185583 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1961738.pdf | jstor=1961738 | last1=Rock | first1=Stephen R. | title=Reviewed work: On War and Morality, Robert L. Holmes; Paths to Peace: Exploring the Feasibility of Sustainable Peace, Richard Smoke, Willis Harman | journal=The American Political Science Review | date=1989 | volume=83 | issue=4 | pages=1447–1448 | doi=10.2307/1961738 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2216042.pdf | jstor=2216042 | last1=Lee | first1=Steven | title=Reviewed work: On War and Morality., Robert L. Holmes | journal=Noûs | date=1992 | volume=26 | issue=4 | pages=559–562 | doi=10.2307/2216042 }}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=yGx-2-maackC ''The Ethics of Nonviolence: Essay by Robert L. Holmes'' - Book blurb on google.books.com]</ref> He further argues that waging war in the modern era  is unjustifiable when considered in its totality and that by transcending the particular perceptions of injustice in a conflict it is possible to be a "pragmatic pacifist".<ref>[https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/pacificism-a-philosophy-of-nonviolence/ ''Pacifism A Philosophy of Nonviolence''. Holmes, Robert L. Bloomsbury, London, 2017 pp.265-266, "Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews" - "Pacifism A Philosophy of Nonviolence"  Book review presented by Cheyney Ryan, the University of Oxford 6/7/2017 archived at the University of Notre Dame on ndpr.nd.edu]</ref>

====Antiwar literature of the 20th century====
* Edmund Blunden's ''[[Undertones of War]]'' (1928).
* Robert Graves's ''[[Good-Bye to All That]]'' (1929).
* Erich Marie Remarque's ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]]'' (1929).
* Beverley Nichols's ''Cry Havoc!'' (1933).
* A.A. Milne's ''[[Peace with Honor|Peace with Honour]]'' (1934).
* Aldous Huxley's ''[[Ends and Means]]'' (1937).
* [[Robert L. Holmes]]', ''On War and Morality'' (1989).<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=ti%3A%22On%20War%20and%20Morality.%22 "On War and Morality". Holmes, Robert L. Princeton University Press 1989 Robert L. Holmes on JSTOR.org]</ref>