Editing Muammar Gaddafi (section)

===Conflict with the US and its allies: 1981–1986===

The early 80s saw economic trouble in Libya; from 1982 to 1986, annual oil revenues dropped from $21 to $5.4 billion.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=31|2a1=Vandewalle|2y=2008b|2p=23|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=104|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=192}} Focusing on irrigation projects, 1983 saw construction start on Libya's largest and most expensive infrastructure project, the [[Great Man-Made River]]; although designed to be finished by the end of the decade, it remained incomplete at the start of the 21st century.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=274|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2p=119|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=224|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=249}} Military spending increased, while other administrative budgets were cut.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=116|2a1=Vandewalle|2y=2008b|2p=35}} Foreign debt rose,{{sfn|St. John|1987|p=121}} and austerity measures were introduced to promote self-reliance; in 1985 there was a mass deportation of foreign workers, mostly Egyptian and Tunisian.{{sfn|St. John|1987|p=122}} Domestic threats continued to plague Gaddafi; in May 1984, his [[Bab al-Azizia]] home was unsuccessfully attacked by a militia—linked to the NFSL or Muslim Brotherhood—and in the aftermath 5,000 dissidents were arrested.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=250|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2p=70|3a1=Blundy|3a2=Lycett|3y=1987|3p=178}} In spring 1985, members of the military tried to assassinate Gaddafi twice. The first was a plot by conservative officers to assassinate him at a villa on the outskirts of Tripoli; the second was an assault on his convoy.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Miller |first1=Judith |last2=Times |first2=Special To the New York |date=14 January 1986 |title=LIBYAN MILITARY TERMED RESTIVE UNDER QADDAFI |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/14/world/libyan-military-termed-restive-under-qaddafi.html |access-date=7 February 2023 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207073945/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/14/world/libyan-military-termed-restive-under-qaddafi.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In November 1985, Colonel Hassan Ishkal, the third most powerful man in Libya, head of the military region of Sirte, died in a suspicious car accident. Ishkal's death was attributed to [[Abdessalam Jalloud|Jalloud]], Khalifa Hunaysh or Gaddafi.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dickey |first=Christopher |date=27 April 1986 |title=Libya Seen Weighing Government Changes |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/04/27/libya-seen-weighing-government-changes/ea0e1531-ff48-4bd0-a43b-05754c56290c/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cousins |first=Michel |date=19 March 2012 |title=Qaddafi aide Khalifa Hunaysh dies from cancer in hospital in Munich. |url=https://www.libyaherald.com/2012/03/qaddafi-aide-khalifa-hunaysh-dies-from-cancer-in-hospital-in-munich/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=LibyaHerald |language=en-US |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207073950/https://www.libyaherald.com/2012/03/qaddafi-aide-khalifa-hunaysh-dies-from-cancer-in-hospital-in-munich/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wallace |first=Charles P. |date=17 January 1986 |title=Food Scarce, Shops Shuttered : Libya Today Far Cry From Kadafi's Utopian Vision |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-01-17-mn-811-story.html |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207073951/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-01-17-mn-811-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:MMR 13.jpg|thumb|left|Construction for the Great Man-Made River Project]]

Libya had long supported the [[FROLINAT]] militia in neighbouring Chad, but FROLINAT became divided over its ties to Libya in 1976. In January 1978, the anti-Libya faction within FROLINAT, led by [[Hissène Habré]], switched sides and allied with Chadian President [[Félix Malloum]].<ref>A. Gérard, ''Nimeiry face aux crises tchadiennes'', p. 119</ref><ref name="BuijtenhuijsA19">R. Buijtenhuijs, "Le FROLINAT à l'épreuve du pouvoir", p. 19</ref> Meanwhile, the pro-Libya faction within FROLINAT, led by [[Goukouni Oueddei]], renamed itself [[People's Armed Forces]] (FAP). In December 1980, Gaddafi reinvaded Chad at the request of the FAP-controlled [[Transitional Government of National Unity (Chad)|GUNT government]] to aid in the civil war; in January 1981, Gaddafi suggested a political merger. The [[Organisation of African Unity]] (OAU) rejected this and called for a Libyan withdrawal, which came in November 1981. The civil war resumed, and Libya sent troops back in.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=211–222|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=187–190|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=35|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=189–190}}

In 1982, the GUNT government was overthrown by Habré's forces and Oueddei fled to Libya, where Gaddafi provided him with arms to continue to guerrilla war against Habré.<ref name="Habre">James Brooke, [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE2D71F3FF93BA2575BC0A961948260 "Habre Policy in Chad: Name Ex-Foes to Key Posts"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413021354/https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE2D71F3FF93BA2575BC0A961948260 |date=13 April 2020 }}, ''[[The New York Times]]'', 18 August 1987.</ref> In November 1984, Gaddafi met with French President [[François Mitterrand]]; both agreed to withdraw from Chad.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Mitterrand meets Qaddafi even as some say Libya still in Chad |work=Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1984/1116/111631.html |access-date=3 February 2023 |issn=0882-7729 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203075529/https://www.csmonitor.com/1984/1116/111631.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Oueddei broke with Gaddafi in 1985 due to the former's intentions to negotiate a truce with Habré. Consequently, he was placed under house arrest by Gaddafi and allegedly arrested by Libyan police and shot in the stomach.<ref name="Habre" /><ref>James Brooke, [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE1D81231F932A35757C0A961948260 "Chad said to win vast Libyan booty"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307180254/https://www.nytimes.com/1987/04/01/world/chad-said-to-win-vast-libyan-booty.html |date=7 March 2023 }}, ''The New York Times'', 1 April 1987.</ref> Oueddei survived the shooting and fled to Algeria, but continued to claim he and Gaddafi enjoyed a good relationship. When Gaddafi ordered the remnant of GUNT to attack Habré in February 1986 in violation of his agreement with Mitterrand, France launched [[Operation Épervier]], which escalated into the [[Toyota War]]. Libya suffered a humiliating defeat as it was completely expelled from Chad and its commander [[Khalifa Haftar]] captured, along with 600-700 Libyan soldiers. Gaddafi disavowed Haftar and the other prisoners; one possible contributing factor to this repudiation may have been that Gaddafi had signed an agreement to withdraw Libyan forces, and Haftar's operations had been in violation of this.<ref>M. Brecher & J. Wilkenfeld, ''A Study of Crisis'', p. 92</ref><ref name="bi-201404222">{{cite news |author=Russ Baker |date=22 April 2014 |title=Is General Khalifa Hifter The CIA's Man in Libya? |work=[[Business Insider]] |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/the-cias-man-in-libya-2011-4 |url-status=live |access-date=26 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140827222052/http://www.businessinsider.com/the-cias-man-in-libya-2011-4 |archive-date=27 August 2014}}</ref> An embittered Haftar then joined the anti-Gaddafi [[National Front for the Salvation of Libya]], became a CIA asset, and was given refuge in the US.<ref name="Anderson">{{cite news |last1=Anderson |first1=Jon Lee |date=23 February 2015 |title=The Unravelling: Libya's New Strongman |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/02/23/unravelling |url-status=live |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315053552/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/02/23/unravelling |archive-date=15 March 2015}}</ref>

Many African nations were tired of Libya's interference in their affairs; by 1980, nine African states had severed diplomatic relations,{{sfnm|1a1=St. John|1y=1987|1p=101|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=189}} while in 1982 the OAU cancelled its scheduled conference in Tripoli to prevent Gaddafi gaining chairmanship.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=103|2a1=St. John|2y=1987|2p=102|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=81|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=190–191}} Some African states, such as [[Jerry Rawlings]]'s Ghana and [[Thomas Sankara]]'s Burkina Faso, had warm relations with Libya during the 1980s.{{sfn|Haynes|1990|p=62}}

Proposing political unity with Morocco, in August 1984, Gaddafi and Moroccan monarch [[Hassan II of Morocco|Hassan II]] signed the [[Oujda Treaty]], forming the Arab–African Union; such a union was considered surprising due to the political differences and longstanding enmity that existed between the two. In a sign of warming relations, Gaddafi promised to stop funding the [[Polisario Front]] and Hassan II extradited former RCC member [[Umar Muhayshi]] to Libya, where he was immediately killed.<ref name=":0" /> But relations deteriorated, particularly due to Morocco's friendship with the US and Israel; in August 1986, Hassan abolished the union.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=261–262|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=214|3a1=St. John|3y=1987|3pp=66–67|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4pp=72–75|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=216}} Angered by the snub, Gaddafi plotted with [[Abu Nidal]] to assassinate Hassan in 1987, but the plot was aborted.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Morocco-Libya: Gaddafi Plotted to Assassinate Hassan II, CIA Reveals – The North Africa Post |url=https://northafricapost.com/16081-morocco-libya-gaddafi-plotted-assassinate-hassan-ii-cia-reveals.html |access-date=2 February 2023 |language=en-US |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202021511/https://northafricapost.com/16081-morocco-libya-gaddafi-plotted-assassinate-hassan-ii-cia-reveals.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Yabiladi.com |title=1987, when Muammar Gaddafi was planning to assassinate King Hassan II |url=https://en.yabiladi.com/articles/details/58568/1987-when-muammar-gaddafi-planning.html |access-date=2 February 2023 |website=en.yabiladi.com |language=en |archive-date=9 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180309230712/https://en.yabiladi.com/articles/details/58568/1987-when-muammar-gaddafi-planning.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1981, the new US president, [[Ronald Reagan]], pursued a hardline approach to Libya, viewing it as a [[puppet regime]] of the Soviet Union.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=228–229|2a1=St. John|2y=1987|2p=81|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=115–116, 120|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=179–180}} Gaddafi played up his commercial relationship with the Soviets, revisiting Moscow in 1981 and 1985,{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1pp=98–99|2a1=St. John|2y=1987|2pp=71, 78|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=115|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=210–211}} and threatening to join the [[Warsaw Pact]].{{sfn|St. John|2008|p=96}} The Soviets were nevertheless cautious of Gaddafi, seeing him as an unpredictable extremist.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=97|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=183|3a1=St. John|3y=1987|3pp=77–78}} In August 1981, the US staged military exercises in the Gulf of Sirte – an area which Libya claimed. The US [[Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)|shot down]] two Libyan [[Sukhoi Su-17|Su-22]] planes which were on an intercept course.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=230–231|2a1=St. John|2y=1987|2p=84|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=36|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4pp=118–119}} Closing down Libya's embassy in Washington, Reagan advised US companies operating in Libya to reduce Americans stationed there.{{sfnm|1a1=Vandewalle|1y=2008b|1p=37|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2pp=117–118|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=180}} In December 1981, the [[White House]] claimed Gaddafi had dispatched a hit squad to assassinate Reagan, allegedly led by [[Carlos the Jackal]], who had been living in Libya under Gaddafi's protection after the 1975 [[OPEC siege]]. Secretary of State [[Alexander Haig]], Defense Secretary [[Caspar Weinberger]], Counselor to the President [[Edwin Meese]], chief of staff [[James Baker]], and deputy chief of staff [[Michael Deaver]] were considered potential targets and given special security. US ambassador to Italy [[Maxwell M. Rabb]], who was Jewish, was urgently recalled due to threats against his life. Gaddafi denied the allegations.<ref name=":5" /> Gaddafi was accused of having ties to the [[Lebanese Armed Revolutionary Factions]], which had murdered US [[military attaché]] [[Charles R. Ray]] and Israeli diplomat [[Killing of Yacov Barsimantov|Yacov Barsimantov]] in Paris.<ref name=":5" /> In March 1982, the US implemented an embargo of Libyan oil,{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=231|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=207–208|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=37|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4pp=117-18|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=181}} and in January 1986 ordered all US companies to cease operating in the country, although several hundred workers remained when the Libyan government doubled their pay.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=294|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=27, 208|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=117–118|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=176}} In spring 1986, [[Action in the Gulf of Sidra (1986)|the US Navy again performed exercises in the Gulf of Sirte]]; the Libyan military retaliated, but failed as the US sank Libyan ships.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=294–295|2a1=Boyd-Judson|2y=2005|2p=79|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=121–122}} Diplomatic relations also broke down with the UK, after Libyan diplomats were accused in the killing of [[Yvonne Fletcher]], a British policewoman stationed outside their London embassy, in April 1984.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=250|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=175–178|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=37|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=209}}

In 1980, Gaddafi hired former CIA agent [[Edwin P. Wilson]], living in Libya as a fugitive from US justice, to plot the murder of an anti-Gaddafi Libyan graduate student at [[Colorado State University]] named Faisal Zagallai. Zagallai was shot in the head in October 1980, in [[Fort Collins, Colorado]] by a former [[Green Berets|Green Beret]] and associate of Wilson named Eugene Tafoya.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Marmaduke |first=Jacy |title=Uncover the mystery of a notorious Fort Collins shooting |url=https://www.coloradoan.com/story/news/2016/12/08/uncover-mystery-notorious-fort-collins-shooting/95041498/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Fort Collins Coloradoan |language=en-US |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307180316/https://www.coloradoan.com/story/news/2016/12/08/uncover-mystery-notorious-fort-collins-shooting/95041498/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Zagallai survived the attack and Tafoya was convicted of third-degree assault and conspiracy to commit assault.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Upi |date=26 November 1981 |title=DEFENDANT DESCRIBES SHOOTING OF LIBYAN |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/26/us/defendant-describes-shooting-of-libyan.html |access-date=7 February 2023 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207181243/https://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/26/us/defendant-describes-shooting-of-libyan.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":6" /> Wilson was lured back to the US and sentenced to 32 years due to his ties to Gaddafi.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Smith |first=Philip |date=14 March 1983 |title=It's 2 Convictions, 32 Years, And More Trials for Wilson |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1983/03/14/its-2-convictions-32-years-and-more-trials-for-wilson/7d9a63c5-27f7-440d-be04-abddd5b855af/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=28 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828080537/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1983/03/14/its-2-convictions-32-years-and-more-trials-for-wilson/7d9a63c5-27f7-440d-be04-abddd5b855af/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1984, Gaddafi publicly [[Execution of Al-Sadek Hamed Al-Shuwehdy|executed Al-Sadek Hamed Al-Shuwehdy]], an aeronautical engineer studying in the US.

After the US accused Libya of orchestrating the [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing]], in which two US soldiers died, Reagan decided to retaliate.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=287|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=4–5|3a1=Boyd-Judson|3y=2005|3p=79|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=122}} The CIA was critical of the move, believing Syria was a greater threat and that an attack would strengthen Gaddafi's reputation; however, Libya was recognized as a "soft target".{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|pp=5–6}} Reagan was supported by the UK, but opposed by other European allies, who argued it contravened international law.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=102|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2pp=123–125}} In [[1986 United States bombing of Libya|Operation El Dorado Canyon]], orchestrated on 15 April 1986, US military planes launched air-strikes, bombing military installations, killing around 100 Libyans, including civilians. One target had been Gaddafi's home. Himself unharmed, two of Gaddafi's sons were injured, and he claimed his adopted daughter [[Hana Gaddafi|Hanna]] was killed, although her existence has since been questioned.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=287|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=2–3, 7–12|3a1=Boyd-Judson|3y=2005|3pp=79–80|4a1=Vandewalle|4y=2008b|4p=37|5a1=Kawczynski|5y=2011|5pp=127–129}} Gaddafi retreated to the desert to meditate.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=13, 210|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=130}} There were sporadic clashes between Gaddafists and army officers who wanted to overthrow the government.{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|p=12}} Although the US was condemned internationally, Reagan received a popularity boost at home.{{sfnm|1a1=Boyd-Judson|1y=2005|1p=80|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=130}} Publicly lambasting US imperialism, Gaddafi's reputation as an anti-imperialist was strengthened domestically and across the Arab world,{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=15|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=196}} and, in June 1986, he ordered the names of the months to be changed in Libya.{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|p=30}}