Editing Middle Ages (section)

== High Middle Ages ==
{{Main|High Middle Ages}}

=== Society and economic life ===
{{see|Agriculture in the Middle Ages}}

[[File:Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg|Medieval French [[Illuminated manuscript|manuscript illustration]] of the three [[Social class|classes]] of medieval society: those who prayed (the [[clergy]]) those who fought (the [[knight]]s), and those who worked (the [[peasant]]ry).<ref name=Whitton134>Whitton "Society of Northern Europe" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 134</ref> The relationship between these classes was governed by [[feudalism]] and [[manorialism]].<ref name=Gainty352>Gainty and Ward ''Sources of World Societies'' p. 352</ref> (''Li Livres dou Sante'', 13th century)|thumb|left]]

The High Middle Ages was a period of tremendous [[Medieval demography| population expansion]]. The estimated population of Europe grew from 35 to 80&nbsp;million between 1000 and 1347, although the exact causes remain unclear: improved agricultural techniques, the decline of slaveholding, a [[Medieval Warm Period|more clement climate]] and the lack of invasion have all been suggested.<ref name=Jordan5>Jordan ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' pp. 5–12</ref><ref name=Backman156>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 156</ref> As much as 90&nbsp;per cent of the European population remained rural peasants. Many were no longer settled in isolated farms but had gathered into small communities, usually known as [[Manorialism|manors]] or villages.<ref name=Backman156 /> These peasants were often subject to noble overlords and owed them rents and other services in a system known as [[manorialism]]. There remained a few free peasants throughout this period and beyond,<ref name=Backman164>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 164–165</ref> with more of them in the regions of Southern Europe than in the north. The practice of [[assarting]], or bringing new lands into production by offering incentives to the peasants who settled them, also contributed to population expansion.<ref name=Epstein52>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 52–53</ref>

The [[open-field system]] of agriculture was commonly practised in most of Europe, especially in "northwestern and central Europe".<ref name=Pounds166>Pounds ''Historical Geography of Europe'' p. 166</ref> Such agricultural communities had three essential characteristics: individual peasant holdings in the form of strips of land were scattered among the different fields belonging to the manor; crops were rotated from year to year to preserve soil fertility; and common land was used for grazing livestock and other purposes. Some regions used a three-field system of crop rotation; others retained the older two-field system.<ref name=Agri>Dawtry "Agriculture" ''Middle Ages'' pp. 15–16</ref>

Other sections of society included the nobility, clergy, and townspeople. Nobles, both the titled [[nobility]] and simple [[knight]]s, exploited the manors and the peasants. However, they did not own lands outright but were granted rights to the income from a manor or other lands by an overlord through the system of [[feudalism]]. During the 11th and 12th centuries, these lands, or [[fief]]s, came to be considered hereditary. In most areas, they were no longer divisible between all the heirs, as had been the case in the early medieval period. Instead, most fiefs and lands went to the eldest son.<ref name=Barber37>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 37–41</ref>{{efn-ua|This inheritance pattern is known as [[primogeniture]].<ref name=Wordbook193>Cosman ''Medieval Wordbook'' p. 193</ref>}} The dominance of the nobility was built upon its control of the land, its military service as [[heavy cavalry]], control of [[castle]]s, and various immunities from taxes or other impositions.{{efn-ua|Heavy cavalry had been introduced into Europe from the Persian [[cataphract]] of the 5th and 6th centuries, but the addition of the [[stirrup]] in the 7th allowed the full force of horse and rider to be used in combat.<ref name=Davies311 />}} Castles, initially in wood but later in stone, began to be constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries in response to the disorder of the time, and protected from invaders and allowing lords defence from rivals. Control of castles allowed the nobles to defy kings or other overlords.<ref name=Davies311>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 311–315</ref> Nobles were stratified; kings and the highest-ranking nobility controlled large numbers of commoners and large tracts of land, as well as other nobles. Beneath them, lesser nobles had authority over smaller land areas and fewer people. Knights were the lowest level of nobility; they controlled but did not own land and had to serve other nobles.<ref name=Daily3>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 3</ref>{{efn-ua|In France, Germany, and the Low Countries there was a further type of "noble", the ''[[ministerialis]]'', who were in effect, unfree knights. They descended from serfs who had served as warriors or government officials, whose increased status allowed their descendants to hold fiefs and become knights while still technically serfs.<ref name=Singman8>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 8</ref>}}

The clergy was divided into two types: the [[secular clergy]], who lived out in the world, and the [[regular clergy]], who lived isolated under a religious rule and usually consisted of monks.<ref name=Hamilton33>Hamilton ''Religion on the Medieval West'' p. 33</ref> Throughout the period, monks remained a tiny proportion of the population, usually less than one percent.<ref name=Daily143>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 143</ref> Most of the regular clergy were drawn from the nobility, the same social class that served as the recruiting ground for the upper levels of the secular clergy. The local [[parish]] priests were often drawn from the peasant class.<ref name=Barber33>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 33–34</ref> Townspeople were somewhat unusual, as they did not fit into the traditional three-fold division of society into nobles, clergy, and peasants. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the ranks of the townspeople expanded greatly as existing towns grew and new population centres were founded.<ref name=Barber48>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 48–49</ref> But throughout the Middle Ages, the population of the towns probably never exceeded 10 percent of the total population.<ref name=Daily171>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 171</ref>

[[File:Petrus alphonsi dialogues.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|13th-century illustration of a Jew (in pointed [[Jewish hat]]) and the Christian [[Petrus Alphonsi]] debating]]

Jews also [[Jews in the Middle Ages|spread across Europe]] during the period. Communities were established in [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]] and [[History of the Jews in England (1066–1290)|England]] in the 11th and 12th centuries, but [[History of the Jews in Spain#Toleration and Jewish immigration (1085–1212)|Spanish Jews]], long settled in Spain under the Muslims, came under Christian rule and increasing pressure to convert to Christianity.<ref name=Jews191 /> Most Jews were confined to the cities, as they were not allowed to own land or be peasants.<ref name=Epstein54>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 54</ref>{{efn-ua|A few Jewish peasants remained on the land under Byzantine rule in the East as well as some on Crete under Venetian rule, but they were the exception in Europe.<ref name=Epstein54 />}} Besides the Jews, there were other non-Christians on the edges of Europe—pagan Slavs in Eastern Europe and Muslims in Southern Europe.<ref name=Daily13>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 13</ref>

[[Women in the Middle Ages]] were officially required to be subordinate to some male, whether their father, husband, or other kinsman. Widows were often allowed much control over their lives, but they were still restricted legally. Women's work generally consisted of household or other domestically inclined tasks. Peasant women were usually responsible for caring for the household, child care, gardening, and animal husbandry near the house. They could supplement their household income by spinning or brewing at home. At harvest time, they were also expected to help with fieldwork.<ref name=Daily14>Singman ''Daily Life'' pp. 14–15</ref> Townswomen, like peasant women, were responsible for the household and could also engage in trade. The trades that were open to women varied by country and period.<ref name=Daily177>Singman ''Daily Life'' pp. 177–178</ref> Noblewomen were responsible for running a household and could occasionally be expected to handle estates in the absence of male relatives, but they were usually restricted from participation in military or government affairs. The only role open to women in the Church was that of [[nun]]s, as they could not become priests.<ref name=Daily14 />

In [[Central Italy|central]] and [[northern Italy]] and in [[Flanders]], the rise of towns that were, to a degree, self-governing stimulated economic growth and created an environment for new types of trade associations. Commercial cities on the shores of the Baltic entered into agreements known as the [[Hanseatic League]]. The Italian [[Maritime republics]] such as [[Venice]], [[Genoa]], and [[Pisa]] expanded their trade throughout the Mediterranean.{{efn-ua|These two groups—Germans and Italians—took different approaches to their trading arrangements. Most German cities co-operated in the Hanseatic League, contrasting with the Italian city-states engaged in internecine strife.<ref name=Epstein81>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 81</ref>}} Great [[Fair|trading fairs]] were established and flourished in [[Champagne fairs|northern France]] during the period, allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with each other as well as local merchants.<ref name=Epstein82>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 82–83</ref> In the late 13th century new land and sea routes to the Far East were pioneered, famously described in ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]'' written by one of the traders, [[Marco Polo]] (d. 1324).<ref name=Barber60>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 60–67</ref> Besides new trading opportunities, agricultural and technological improvements increased crop yields, which allowed the trade networks to expand.<ref name=Backman160>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 160</ref> Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money, and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first in Italy and later in France and other countries. New forms of commercial contracts emerged, sharing risk among merchants. Accounting methods improved, partly through the use of [[double-entry bookkeeping]]; [[letters of credit]] also appeared, allowing easy transmission of money.<ref name=Barber74>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 74–76</ref>

=== Rise of state power ===
{{Main|England in the Middle Ages|France in the Middle Ages|Germany in the Middle Ages|Italy in the Middle Ages|Scotland in the Middle Ages|Spain in the Middle Ages|Poland in the Middle Ages}}

[[File:Europe mediterranean 1190.jpg|Europe and the Mediterranean Sea in 1190|thumb|upright=1.3]]

The High Middle Ages was the formative period in the history of the modern Western state. Kings in France, England, and Spain consolidated their power and established lasting governing institutions.<ref name=Backman283>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 283–284</ref> New kingdoms such as [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] and [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Poland]], after their conversion to Christianity, became Central European powers.<ref name=Barber365>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 365–380</ref> The Magyars settled Hungary around 900 under King [[Árpád]] (d. c. 907) after a series of invasions in the 9th century.<ref name=Davies296>Davies ''Europe'' p. 296</ref> The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular kings, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world; the [[Temporal power (papal)|Papal Monarchy]] reached its apogee in the early 13th century under the pontificate of {{nowrap|[[Innocent III]]}} (pope 1198–1216).<ref name=Backman262>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 262–279</ref> [[Northern Crusades]] and the advance of Christian kingdoms and military orders into previously [[pagan]] regions in the Baltic and [[Finland|Finnic]] north-east brought the forced assimilation of numerous native peoples into European culture.<ref name=Barber371>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 371–372</ref>

During the early High Middle Ages, Germany was ruled by the [[Ottonian dynasty]], which struggled to control the powerful dukes ruling over [[stem duchy|territorial duchies]], tracing back to the Migration period. In 1024, they were replaced by the [[Salian dynasty]], who famously clashed with the papacy under Emperor {{nowrap|[[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]]}} (r. 1084–1105) over Church appointments as part of the [[Investiture Controversy]].<ref name=Backman181>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 181–186</ref> His successors continued to struggle against the papacy as well as the German nobility. A period of instability followed the death of Emperor {{nowrap|[[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]]}} (r. 1111–1125), who died without heirs, until [[Frederick I Barbarossa|{{nowrap|Frederick I}} Barbarossa]] (r. 1155–1190) took the imperial throne.<ref name=Jordan143>Jordan ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' pp. 143–147</ref> Although he ruled effectively, the basic problems remained, and his successors struggled into the 13th century.<ref name=Jordan250>Jordan ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' pp. 250–252</ref> Barbarossa's grandson [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] (r. 1220–1250), who was also heir to the throne of Sicily through his mother, clashed repeatedly with the papacy. His court was famous for its scholars, and he was often accused of [[Heresy in Christianity|heresy]].<ref name=Denley235>Denley "Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 235–238</ref> He and his successors faced many difficulties, including the invasion of the [[Mongols]] into Europe in the mid-13th century. Mongols first shattered the Kyivan Rus' principalities and then [[Mongol invasion of Europe|invaded Eastern Europe]] in 1241, 1259, and 1287.<ref name=Davies364>Davies ''Europe'' p. 364</ref>

[[File:Bayeux Tapestry scene44 William Odo Robert.jpg|The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] (detail) showing [[William the Conqueror]] (centre), his half-brothers [[Robert, Count of Mortain]] (right) and [[Odo, Earl of Kent|Odo]], Bishop of [[Bayeux]] in the [[Duchy of Normandy]] (left)|thumb|left]]

Under the [[Capetian dynasty]] the French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility, growing out of the [[Île-de-France]] to exert control over more of the country in the 11th and 12th centuries.<ref name=Backman187>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 187–189</ref> They faced a powerful rival in the [[Dukes of Normandy]], who in 1066 under [[William the Conqueror]] (duke 1035–1087), conquered England (r. 1066–1087) and created a cross-channel empire that lasted, in various forms, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages.<ref name=Jordan59>Jordan ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' pp. 59–61</ref><ref name=Backman189>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 189–196</ref> Normans also settled in Sicily and southern Italy, when [[Robert Guiscard]] (d. 1085) landed there in 1059 and established a duchy that later became the [[Kingdom of Sicily]].<ref name=Davies294>Davies ''Europe'' p. 294</ref> Under the [[Angevin kings of England|Angevin dynasty]] of {{nowrap|[[Henry II of England|Henry II]]}} (r. 1154–1189) and his son [[Richard I]] (r. 1189–1199), the kings of England ruled over England and large areas of France,<ref name=Backman263>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 263</ref>{{efn-ua|This grouping of lands is often called the [[Angevin Empire]].<ref name=Feudal285>Barlow ''Feudal Kingdom'' pp. 285–286</ref>}} brought to the family by Henry II's marriage to [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] (d. 1204), heiress to much of southern France.<ref name=Eleanor>Loyn "Eleanor of Aquitaine" ''Middle Ages'' p. 122</ref>{{efn-ua|Eleanor had previously been married to [[Louis VII of France]] (r. 1137–1180), but their marriage was annulled in 1152.<ref name=Eleanor />}} Richard's younger brother [[John, King of England|John]] (r. 1199–1216) lost Normandy and the rest of the northern French possessions in 1204 to the French King [[Philip II Augustus]] (r. 1180–1223). This led to dissension among the English nobility. John's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led in 1215 to ''[[Magna Carta]]'', a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England. Under {{nowrap|[[Henry III of England|Henry III]]}} (r. 1216–1272), John's son, further concessions were made to the nobility, and royal power was diminished.<ref name=Backman286>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 286–289</ref> The French monarchy continued to make gains against the nobility during the late 12th and 13th centuries, bringing more territories within the kingdom under the king's personal rule and centralising the royal administration.<ref name=Backman289>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 289–293</ref> Under [[Louis IX]] (r. 1226–1270), royal prestige rose to new heights as Louis served as a mediator for most of Europe.<ref name=Davies355>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 355–357</ref>{{efn-ua|Louis was [[canonised]] in 1297 by Pope [[Boniface VIII]].<ref name=Hallam401>Hallam and Everard ''Capetian France'' p. 401</ref>}}

In Iberia, the Christian states, which had been confined to the north-western part of the peninsula, began to push back against the Islamic states in the south, a period known as the ''[[Reconquista]]''.<ref name=Davies345>Davies ''Europe'' p. 345</ref> By about 1150, the Christian north had coalesced into the five major kingdoms of [[Kingdom of León|León]], [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]], and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]].<ref name=Barber341>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 341</ref> Southern Iberia remained under control of Islamic states, initially under the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as ''[[taifa]]s'',<ref name=Davies345 /> who fought with the Christians until the [[Almohad Caliphate]] re-established centralised rule over Southern Iberia in the 1170s.<ref name=Barber350>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 350–351</ref> Christian forces advanced again in the early 13th century, culminating in the capture of [[Seville]] in 1248.<ref name=Barber353>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 353–355</ref>

=== Crusades ===
{{Main|Crusades|Reconquista|Northern Crusades}}
{{See also|Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty| Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty}}

[[File:Crac des chevaliers syria.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Krak des Chevaliers]] was built during the Crusades for the [[Knights Hospitaller]]s.<ref name=Fortress268>Kaufmann and Kaufmann ''Medieval Fortress'' pp. 268–269</ref>]]

In the 11th century, the [[Seljuk Turks]] took over much of the Middle East, occupying Persia during the 1040s, Armenia in the 1060s, and Jerusalem in 1070. In 1071, the Turkish army defeated the Byzantine army at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] and captured the Byzantine Emperor [[Romanus IV]] (r. 1068–1071). The Turks were then free to invade Asia Minor, which dealt a dangerous blow to the Byzantine Empire by seizing a large part of its population and its economic heartland. Although the Byzantines regrouped and recovered somewhat, they never fully regained Asia Minor and were often on the defensive. The Turks also had difficulties, losing control of Jerusalem to the [[Fatimids]] of Egypt and suffering from a series of internal civil wars.<ref name=Davies332>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 332–333</ref> The Byzantines also faced a revived [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]], which in the late 12th and 13th centuries spread throughout the Balkans.<ref name=Davies386>Davies ''Europe'' pp.&nbsp;386–387</ref>

The Crusades were intended to seize [[Jerusalem]] from Muslim control. The [[First Crusade]] was proclaimed by Pope [[Urban II]] (pope 1088–1099) at the [[Council of Clermont]] in 1095 in response to a request from the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] (r. 1081–1118) for aid against further Muslim advances. Urban promised [[indulgence]] to anyone who took part. Tens of thousands of people from all levels of society mobilised across Europe and captured Jerusalem in 1099.<ref name=MACrusades /> One feature of the crusades was the [[pogrom]]s against local Jews that often took place as the crusaders left their countries for the East. These were especially brutal during the First Crusade,<ref name=Jews191 /> when the Jewish communities in [[Cologne]], [[Mainz]], and [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] were destroyed, as well as other communities in cities between the rivers [[Seine]] and the Rhine.<ref name=Comp397>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 397–399</ref> Another outgrowth of the crusades was the foundation of a new type of monastic order, the [[Military order (society)|military orders]] of the [[Templars]] and [[Hospitallers]], which fused monastic life with military service.<ref name=Barber145 />

The Crusaders consolidated their conquests into [[Crusader states]]. During the 12th and 13th centuries, there were a series of conflicts between them and the surrounding Islamic states. Appeals from the crusader states to the papacy led to further crusades,<ref name=MACrusades>Riley-Smith "Crusades" ''Middle Ages'' pp. 106–107</ref> such as the [[Third Crusade]], called to try to regain Jerusalem, which had been captured by [[Saladin]] (d. 1193) in 1187.<ref name=Payne204>Payne ''Dream and the Tomb'' pp. 204–205</ref>{{efn-ua| Military religious orders such as the [[Knights Templar]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller]] were formed and went on to play an integral role in the crusader states.<ref name=Lock353>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 353–356</ref>}} In 1203, the [[Fourth Crusade]] was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople, and captured the city in 1204, setting up a [[Latin Empire of Constantinople]]<ref name=Lock156>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 156–161</ref> and greatly weakening the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines recaptured the city in 1261 but never regained their former strength.<ref name=Backman299>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 299–300</ref> By 1291, all the crusader states had been captured or forced from the mainland. However, a titular [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] survived on the island of [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]] for several years afterwards.<ref name=Lock122>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' p. 122</ref>

Popes called for crusades elsewhere besides the Holy Land: in Spain, southern France, and along the Baltic.<ref name=MACrusades /> The Spanish crusades became fused with the ''Reconquista'' of Spain from the Muslims. Although the Templars and Hospitallers took part in the Spanish crusades, similar Spanish military religious orders were founded, most of which had become part of the two main orders of [[Order of Calatrava|Calatrava]] and [[Order of Santiago|Santiago]] by the beginning of the 12th century.<ref name=Lock205>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 205–213</ref> Northern Europe also remained outside Christian influence until the 11th century or later and became a crusading venue as part of the Northern Crusades of the 12th to 14th centuries. These crusades also spawned a military order, the [[Order of the Sword Brothers]]. Another order, the [[Teutonic Knights]], although founded in the crusader states, focused much of its activity in the Baltic after 1225 and, in 1309, moved its headquarters to [[Malbork Castle|Marienburg]] in [[Prussia]].<ref name=Lock213>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 213–224</ref>

=== Intellectual life ===
{{Main|Renaissance of the 12th century|Medieval philosophy| Medieval literature|Medieval poetry|Medieval medicine of Western Europe}}

During the 11th century, developments in philosophy and theology led to increased intellectual activity. There was a debate between the [[Philosophical realism|realists]] and the [[nominalists]] over the concept of "[[universals]]". Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of [[Aristotle]] and his emphasis on [[empiricism]] and [[rationalism]]. Scholars such as [[Peter Abelard]] (d. 1142) and [[Peter Lombard]] (d. 1164) introduced [[Aristotelian logic]] into theology. In the late 11th and early 12th centuries [[cathedral school]]s spread throughout Western Europe, signalling the shift of learning from monasteries to cathedrals and towns.<ref name=Backman232>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 232–237</ref> Cathedral schools were in turn replaced by the [[medieval university|universities]] established in major European cities.<ref name=Backman247>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 247–252</ref> Philosophy and theology fused in [[scholasticism]], an attempt by 12th- and 13th-century scholars to reconcile authoritative texts, most notably Aristotle and the Bible. This movement tried to employ a systemic approach to truth and reason<ref name=MASchol>Loyn "Scholasticism" ''Middle Ages'' pp. 293–294</ref> and culminated in the thought of [[Thomas Aquinas]] (d. 1274), who wrote the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', or ''Summary of Theology''.<ref name=Colish295>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 295–301</ref>

[[File:Richard of Wallingford.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|A medieval scholar making precise measurements in a 14th-century manuscript illustration]]

[[Chivalry]] and the ethos of [[courtly love]] developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the [[vernacular languages]] rather than Latin and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs spread by [[troubadour]]s or [[Minnesänger]]s, or wandering minstrels. Often the stories were written down in the ''[[chansons de geste]]'', or "songs of great deeds", such as ''[[The Song of Roland]]'' or ''[[Hildebrand|The Song of Hildebrand]]''.<ref name=Backman252>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 252–260</ref> Secular and religious histories were also produced.<ref name=Davies349>Davies ''Europe'' p. 349</ref> [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] (d. c. 1155) composed his ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', a collection of stories and legends about [[King Arthur|Arthur]].<ref name=SaulGeoffrey>Saul ''Companion to Medieval England'' pp. 113–114</ref> Other works were more clearly history, such as [[Otto von Freising]]'s (d. 1158) ''Gesta Friderici Imperatoris'' detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, or [[William of Malmesbury]]'s (d. c. 1143) ''Gesta Regum'' on the kings of England.<ref name=Davies349 />

Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and [[canon law]], or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was significantly advanced by the discovery of the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' in the 11th century, and by 1100, Roman law was being taught at [[University of Bologna|Bologna]]. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around 1140, a monk named [[Decretum Gratiani|Gratian]] (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law—the ''[[Decretum Gratiani|Decretum]]''.<ref name=Backman237>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 237–241</ref>

Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of [[Roman numerals]] with the [[decimal]] [[positional number system]] and the invention of [[algebra]], which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'' from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the [[Schola Medica Salernitana|school at Salerno]].<ref name=Backman241>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 241–246</ref>

=== Technology and military ===
{{Main|Medieval technology|Medieval warfare|History of science#Science in the Middle Ages}}
{{further|List of medieval European scientists}}
[[File:Tommaso da modena, ritratti di domenicani (Ugo di Provenza) 1352 150cm, treviso, ex convento di san niccolò, sala del capitolo.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Cardinal [[Hugh of Saint-Cher]] by [[Tommaso da Modena]], 1352, the first known depiction of [[spectacles]]<ref>Ilardi, ''Renaissance Vision'', pp.&nbsp;18–19</ref>]]

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe experienced economic growth and innovations in methods of production. Significant technological advances included the invention of the [[windmill]], the first mechanical clocks, the manufacture of [[distilled spirits]], and the use of the [[astrolabe]].<ref name=Backman246>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 246</ref> Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan, probably working in or near Pisa.<ref>Ilardi, ''Renaissance Vision'', pp.&nbsp;4–5, 49</ref>

The development of a three-field [[Crop rotation|rotation system]] for planting crops<ref name=Backman156 />{{efn-ua|It had spread to Northern Europe by 1000 and had reached Poland by the 12th century.<ref name=Epstein45>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 45</ref>}} increased the usage of land from one-half in use each year under the old two-field system to two-thirds under the new system, with a consequent increase in production.<ref name=Epstein45 /> The development of the [[Plough|heavy plough]] allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently, aided by the spread of the [[horse collar]], which led to the use of [[Working animal|draught horses]] in place of oxen. Horses are faster than oxen and require less pasture, factors that aided the implementation of the three-field system.<ref name=Backman156-59>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 156–159</ref> Legumes – such as peas, beans, or lentils – were grown more widely as crops, in addition to the usual cereal crops of wheat, oats, barley, and rye.<ref name=Barber80>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 80</ref>

The construction of [[cathedral]]s and castles advanced building technology, developing large stone buildings. Ancillary structures included new town halls, houses, bridges, and [[tithe barn]]s.<ref name=Barber68>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 68</ref> Shipbuilding improved with the use of the [[Boat building|rib and plank]] method rather than the old Roman system of [[mortise and tenon]]. Other improvements to ships included the use of [[lateen]] sails and the [[rudder#Medieval Europe|stern-post rudder]], both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.<ref name=Barber73>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 73</ref>

In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry [[crossbowmen]], as well as [[sapper]]s and engineers.<ref name=NicolleWestern125>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 125</ref> Crossbows, which had been known in Late Antiquity, increased in use partly because of the increase in [[siege]] warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries.<ref name="NicolleWestern80" />{{efn-ua|Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. In sieges, slowness is not as big a disadvantage as the crossbowman, who can hide behind fortifications while reloading.<ref name=Daily124>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 124</ref>}} The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed-face [[Combat helmet|helmets]], heavy body armour, as well as [[horse armour]].<ref name=NicolleWestern130>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 130</ref> [[Gunpowder]] was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304. However, it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon. [[Cannon]] were being used for sieges in the 1320s, and hand-held guns were in use by the 1360s.<ref name=Nicolle296 />

=== Architecture, art, and music ===
{{further|Medieval architecture|Medieval art|Medieval music}}
[[File:Maria Lach 02.jpg|thumb|The [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] Church of [[Maria Laach Abbey|Maria Laach, Germany]]]]

In the 10th century, the establishment of churches and monasteries led to the development of stone architecture that elaborated vernacular Roman forms, from which the term "Romanesque" was derived. Where available, Roman [[brick]] and stone buildings were recycled for their materials. From the tentative beginnings known as the [[First Romanesque]], the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form. Just before 1000, a great wave of stone churches were being built all over Europe.<ref name=Benton55>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' p. 55</ref> [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] buildings have massive stone walls, openings topped by semi-circular arches, small windows, and, particularly in France, arched stone vaults.<ref name=Adams181>Adams ''History of Western Art'' pp. 181–189</ref> The large [[Portal (architecture)|portal]] with coloured sculpture in [[Relief|high relief]] became a central feature of façades, especially in France, and the [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]] of columns were often carved with narrative scenes of imaginative monsters and animals.<ref name=Benton58to75>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 58–60, 65–66, 73–75</ref> According to art historian [[C. R. Dodwell]], "virtually all the churches in the West were decorated with wall-paintings", of which few survive.<ref name=Dodwell37>Dodwell ''Pictorial Arts of the West'' p. 37</ref> Simultaneous with the development in church architecture, the distinctive European form of the castle was developed and became crucial to politics and warfare.<ref name=Benton295>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 295–299</ref>

Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in [[Mosan art]], in which distinct artistic personalities, including [[Nicholas of Verdun]] (d. 1205), become apparent. An almost [[Ancient Greek art|classical style]] is seen in works such as a [[Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège|font at Liège]],<ref name=Lasko240>Lasko ''Ars Sacra'' pp. 240–250</ref> contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary [[Gloucester Candlestick]]. Large illuminated bibles and [[psalter]]s were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts, and wall-painting flourished in churches, often following a scheme with a ''[[Last Judgement]]'' on the west wall, a [[Christ in Majesty]] at the east end, and narrative biblical scenes down the nave, or in the best surviving example, at [[Abbey Church of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe|Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]], on the [[barrel-vault]]ed roof.<ref name=Benton91>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 91–92</ref>

[[File:Nef cathédrale Laon.jpg|The [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] interior of [[Laon Cathedral]], France|thumb|left]]

From the early 12th century, French builders developed the [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style, marked by the use of [[rib vault]]s, [[Ogive|pointed arches]], [[flying buttress]]es, and large [[stained glass]] windows. It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals and continued until the 16th century in much of Europe. Classic examples of Gothic architecture include [[Chartres Cathedral]] and [[Reims Cathedral]] in France, as well as [[Salisbury Cathedral]] in England.<ref name=Adams195>Adams ''History of Western Art'' pp. 195–216</ref> Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches, which continued to use extensive wall-paintings, now almost all lost.<ref name=Benton185to271>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 185–190; 269–271</ref>

During this period, the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, so that according to [[Janetta Benton]] "by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops",<ref name=Benton250>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' p. 250</ref> and the [[book of hours]] developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people. Metalwork remained the most prestigious art form, with [[Limoges enamel]] a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses.<ref name=Benton245>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 135–139, 245–247</ref> In Italy the innovations of [[Cimabue]] and [[Duccio]], followed by the [[Trecento]] master [[Giotto]] (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of [[panel painting]] and [[fresco]].<ref name=Benton264>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 264–278</ref> Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many [[carved ivory]] objects such as gaming-pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.<ref name=Benton248>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 248–250</ref>

=== Church life ===
{{Main|Gregorian Reform|Church and state in medieval Europe}}

[[File:Bonaventura Berlinghieri Francesco.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Francis of Assisi]], depicted by [[Bonaventura Berlinghieri]] in 1235, founded the [[Franciscan]] Order.<ref name=Hamilton47>Hamilton ''Religion in the Medieval West'' p. 47</ref>]]

Monastic reform became an important issue during the 11th century, as elites began to worry that monks were not adhering to the rules binding them to a strictly religious life. [[Cluny Abbey]], founded in the [[Mâcon]] region of France in 909, was established as part of the [[Cluniac Reforms]], a larger movement of monastic reform in response to this fear.<ref name=Rhino>Rosenwein ''Rhinoceros Bound'' pp. 40–41</ref> Cluny quickly established a reputation for austerity and rigour. It sought to maintain a high quality of spiritual life by placing itself under the protection of the papacy and by electing its own abbot without interference from laymen, thus maintaining economic and political independence from local lords.<ref name=Barber143>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 143–144</ref>

Monastic reform inspired change in the secular Church. The ideals upon which it was based were brought to the papacy by Pope [[Leo IX]] (pope 1049–1054) and provided the ideology of clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century. This involved Pope [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]] (pope 1073–1085) and Emperor Henry IV, who initially clashed over episcopal appointments, a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of [[investiture]], clerical marriage, and [[simony]]. The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities and wanted to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands. Still, the papacy insisted on the Church's independence from secular lords. These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122, known as the [[Concordat of Worms]]. The dispute represents a significant stage in creating a papal monarchy separate from and equal to [[laity|lay]] authorities. It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors.<ref name=Rhino />

[[File:Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg|[[Sénanque Abbey]], [[Gordes]], France|thumb|left]]

The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements. Besides the Crusades and monastic reforms, people sought to participate in new forms of religious life. New monastic orders were founded, including the [[Carthusian]]s and the [[Cistercians]]. The latter, in particular, expanded rapidly in their early years under the guidance of [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] (d. 1153). These new orders were formed in response to the feeling of the laity that Benedictine monasticism no longer met the needs of the laymen, who, along with those wishing to enter the religious life, wanted a return to the simpler [[hermit|hermetical]] monasticism of early Christianity, or to live an [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostolic life]].<ref name=Barber145>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 145–149</ref> [[Christian pilgrimage|Religious pilgrimages]] were also encouraged. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and [[Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela|Compostela]] received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as [[Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo|Monte Gargano]] and [[Basilica di San Nicola|Bari]] rose to prominence.<ref name=Morris199>Morris "Northern Europe" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 199</ref>

In the 13th century [[mendicant orders]]—the [[Franciscan]]s and the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]]—who swore vows of poverty and earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy.<ref name=Barber155>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 155–167</ref> Religious groups such as the [[Waldensians]] and the [[Humiliati]] also attempted to return to the life of early Christianity in the middle 12th and early 13th centuries, another heretical movement condemned by the papacy. Others joined the [[Cathars]], another movement condemned as heretical by the papacy. In 1209, a crusade was preached against the Cathars, the [[Albigensian Crusade]], which, in combination with the [[medieval Inquisition]], eliminated them.<ref name=Barber185>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 185–192</ref>