Editing Macedonia (ancient kingdom) (section)

===Military===
{{main|Ancient Macedonian army|Antigonid Macedonian army}}
{{further|Hellenistic armies|Macedonian phalanx}}
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| image1 = Macedonian Army Pezetairos.jpg
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| image2 = Македонски штит од Бонче.jpg
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| footer = Left, a Macedonian infantryman, possibly a [[hypaspist]], equipped with an ''[[aspis]]'' shield and wearing a [[linothorax]] cuirass and [[Thracian helmet]]; [[bas relief]] from the [[Alexander Sarcophagus]], 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC. Right, an ancient Macedonian bronze [[shield]] excavated from the archaeological site at [[Bonče]] in [[North Macedonia]], dated 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC.
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====Early Macedonian army====
{{further|Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}}
The basic structure of the [[Ancient Macedonian army]] was the division between the companion cavalry (''[[hetairoi]]'') and the foot companions (''[[pezhetairoi]]''), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=447}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=243–244}}.</ref> The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of [[Alexander I of Macedon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=447–448}}.</ref> Macedonian cavalry, wearing [[muscled cuirass]]es, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the [[Peloponnesian War]], at times siding with either Athens or Sparta.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=448–449}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=238–239}} for further details.</ref> Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=238–239; 243–244}}.</ref> As evidenced by early 4th century BC artwork, there was a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip{{nbsp}}II.<ref name="sekunda 2010 449">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=449}}.</ref> Nicholas Viktor Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip{{nbsp}}II's reign in 359{{nbsp}}BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry,<ref name="sekunda 2010 448 449">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=448–449}}.</ref> yet Malcolm Errington cautions that these figures cited by ancient authors should be treated with some skepticism.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=239–240}}.</ref>

====Philip II and Alexander the Great====
{{further|Military tactics in Ancient Greece|Thessalian cavalry}}

After spending years as a political hostage in Thebes, Philip{{nbsp}}II sought to imitate the Greek example of [[Military exercise|martial exercises]] and the issuing of [[Ancient Greek military personal equipment|standard equipment]] for citizen soldiery, and succeeded in transforming the Macedonian army from a levied force of unprofessional farmers into a well-trained, [[professional army]].<ref name="errington 1990 238">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=238, 247}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II adopted some of the [[military tactics]] of his enemies, such as the ''[[embolon]]'' (flying wedge) cavalry formation of the [[Scythia]]ns.<ref name="sekunda 2010 451">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=451}}.</ref> His infantry wielded ''peltai'' shields that replaced the earlier ''[[aspis]]''-style shields, were equipped with [[Greek helmet (disambiguation)|protective helmets]]<!--intentional link to DAB page-->, [[greave]]s, and either [[cuirass]]es [[breastplate]]s or ''[[kotthybos]]'' stomach bands, and armed with ''[[sarissa]]'' [[Pike (weapon)|pikes]] and  [[dagger]]s as  secondary weapons.<ref group="note">According to Sekunda, Philip&nbsp;II's infantry were eventually equipped with heavier armor such as cuirasses, since the ''[[Third Philippic]]'' of [[Demosthenes]] in 341&nbsp;BC described them as [[hoplite]]s instead of lighter [[peltast]]s: {{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=449–450}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=238}} for further details. <br />However, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by the [[phalanx]] [[pikemen]] of either Philip&nbsp;II or Philip&nbsp;V's reigns (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were worn only by [[military officer]]s, while pikemen wore the ''[[kotthybos]]'' stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a daggers as  secondary weapons along with their shields. See {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=241}}.</ref> The elite ''[[hypaspistai]]'' infantry, composed of handpicked men from the ranks of the ''pezhetairoi'', were formed during the reign of Philip{{nbsp}}II and saw continued use during the reign of Alexander the Great.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=450}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=244}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II was also responsible for the establishment of the royal bodyguards (''[[somatophylakes]]'').<ref name="sekunda 2010 452">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=452}}.</ref>
{{multiple image| align = left | direction = vertical | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = An ancient fresco of Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of [[Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki]], Greece, 4th century BC | footer_align = left | image1 = Agios Athanasios 1 fresco.jpg | width1 = 220 | caption1  = | image2 = Agios-Athanasios.jpg | width2 = 220| caption2  = }}

For his lighter missile troops, Philip II employed mercenary [[Cretan archers]] as well as Thracian, Paeonian, and Illyrian [[javelin]] throwers, [[Sling (weapon)|slingers]], and archers.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=451}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=241–242}}.</ref> He hired engineers such as [[Polyidus of Thessaly]] and [[Diades of Pella]], who were capable of building [[state of the art]] [[siege engine]]s and [[artillery]] that fired large [[Crossbow bolt|bolts]].<ref name="sekunda 2010 451"/> Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines at [[Krinides]] (renamed [[Philippi]]), the royal treasury could afford to field a permanent, professional [[standing army]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=449–451}}.</ref> The increase in state revenues under Philip{{nbsp}}II allowed the Macedonians to build a small navy for the first time, which included [[trireme]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=451}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=247–248}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=24–26}}.</ref>

The only Macedonian cavalry units attested under Alexander were the companion cavalry,<ref name="sekunda 2010 452"/> yet he formed a ''[[Hipparchus (cavalry officer)|hipparchia]]'' (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic [[Persian people|Persians]] while campaigning in Asia.<ref name="sekunda 2010 453">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=453}}.</ref> When marching his forces into Asia, Alexander brought 1,800 cavalrymen from Macedonia, 1,800 [[Thessalian cavalry|cavalrymen from Thessaly]], 600 cavalrymen from the rest of Greece, and 900 ''[[prodromoi]]'' cavalry from [[Thrace]].<ref name="sekunda 2010 454">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=454}}.</ref> Antipater was able to quickly raise a force of 600 native Macedonian cavalry to fight in the [[Lamian War]] when it began in 323{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="sekunda 2010 454"/> The most elite members of Alexander's ''hypaspistai'' were designated as the ''[[agema]]'', and a new term for ''hypaspistai'' emerged after the [[Battle of Gaugamela]] in 331{{nbsp}}BC: the ''[[argyraspides]]'' (silver shields).<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=455}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=245}}.</ref> The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=455–456}}. <br />{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=245}}: in regards to both the ''[[argyraspides]]'' and ''[[chalkaspides]]'', "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official."</ref> Overall, his pike-wielding phalanx infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite ''hypaspistai'' and 9,000 of which were ''pezhetairoi''.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=455–457}}. <br />However, in discussing the discrepancies among [[List of Greek historiographers|ancient historians]] about the size of [[Alexander the Great]]'s army, [[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] choose [[Diodorus Siculus]]' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen. {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=22–23}}.</ref> Alexander continued the use of Cretan archers and introduced native Macedonian archers into the army.<ref name="sekunda 2010 458 459"/> After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace.<ref name="sekunda 2010 458 459">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=458–459}}.</ref>

====Antigonid period military====
[[File:Thueros affresco.jpg|thumb|upright|Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier (''[[thorakitai|thorakites]]'') wearing [[chainmail]] armor and bearing a [[thureos]] shield, 3rd century{{nbsp}}BC, [[İstanbul Archaeology Museums]]]]
[[Antigonid Macedonian army|The Macedonian army]] continued to evolve under the [[Antigonid dynasty]]. It is uncertain how many men were appointed as ''somatophylakes'', which numbered eight men at the end of Alexander the Great's reign, while the ''hypaspistai'' seem to have morphed into assistants of the ''somatophylakes''.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=459}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=245}}: "Other developments in Macedonian army organization are evident after [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]. One is the evolution of the ''[[hypaspistai]]'' from an elite unit to a form of [[military police]] or [[bodyguard]] under [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip&nbsp;V]]; the only thing the two functions had in common was the particular closeness to the king."</ref> At the [[Battle of Cynoscephalae]] in 197{{nbsp}}BC, the Macedonians commanded some 16,000 phalanx pikemen.<ref name="sekunda 2010 461">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=461}}.</ref> Alexander the Great's royal squadron of companion cavalry contained 800 men, the same number of cavalrymen in the sacred squadron ([[Latin language|Latin]]: ''sacra ala''; [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''hiera ile'') commanded by [[Philip V of Macedon]] during the [[Social War (220–217 BC)|Social War]] of 219{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="sekunda 2010 460">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=460}}.</ref> The regular Macedonian cavalry numbered 3,000 at Callinicus, which was separate from the sacred squadron and royal cavalry.<ref name="sekunda 2010 460"/> While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from the [[Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe|Celtic invaders]] of the 270s BC who settled in [[Galatia]], central Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=469}}</ref>

Thanks to [[Military Decree of Amphipolis|contemporary inscriptions]] from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181{{nbsp}}BC, respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip{{nbsp}}V.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=460–461}}; for the evolution of Macedonian military titles, such as its command by ''tetrarchai'' officers assisted by ''grammateis'' (i.e. secretaries or clerks), see {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=242–243}}.</ref> From at least the time of [[Antigonus III Doson]], the most elite Antigonid-period infantry were the [[peltast]]s, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding ''peltai'' [[javelin]]s, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than [[Macedonian phalanx]] pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=461–462}}; <br />{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=245}}: "The other development, which happened at the latest under [[Antigonus III Doson|Doson]], was the formation and training of a special unit of ''[[peltast]]ai'' separate from the [[Macedonian phalanx|phalanx]]. This unit operated as a form of [[royal guard]] similar in function to the earlier ''[[hypaspistai]]''."</ref> Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the elite ''agema'' [[vanguard]], with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000.<ref name="sekunda 2010 462">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=462}}.</ref> The number of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=463}}; the largest figure for elite Macedonian [[peltast]]s mentioned by ancient historians was 5,000 troops, an amount that existed in the [[Social War (220–217 BC)]].</ref> They fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into ''[[chalkaspides]]'' (bronze shield) and ''[[leukaspides]]'' (white shield) regiments.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=463–464}}.</ref>

The Antigonid Macedonian kings continued to expand and equip [[Ancient navies and vessels|the navy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=247–248}}.</ref> [[Cassander]] maintained [[Hellenistic-era warships|a small fleet]] at [[Pydna]], [[Demetrius I of Macedon]] had one at Pella, and [[Antigonus II Gonatas]], while serving as a general for Demetrius in Greece, used the navy to secure the Macedonian holdings in [[Demetrias]], [[Chalkis]], [[Piraeus]], and [[Corinth]].<ref name="errington 1990 248">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=248}}.</ref> The navy was considerably expanded during the [[Chremonidean War]] (267–261{{nbsp}}BC), allowing the Macedonian navy to defeat the Ptolemaic Egyptian navy at the 255{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Cos]] and 245{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Andros (246 BC)|Battle of Andros]], and enabling Macedonian influence to spread over the [[Cyclades]].<ref name="errington 1990 248"/> Antigonus{{nbsp}}III Doson used the Macedonian navy to invade [[Caria]], while Philip{{nbsp}}V sent 200 ships to fight in the [[Battle of Chios (201 BC)|Battle of Chios]] in 201{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="errington 1990 248"/> The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197{{nbsp}}BC [[peace treaty]] that concluded the [[Second Macedonian War]] with the [[Roman Republic]], although [[Perseus of Macedon]] quickly assembled some ''[[lemboi]]'' at the outbreak of the [[Third Macedonian War]] in 171{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="errington 1990 248"/>