Editing Khmer language (section)

===Syntax===
[[Syntax]] is the rules and processes that describe how sentences are formed in a particular language, how words relate to each other within clauses or phrases and how those phrases relate to each other within a sentence to convey meaning.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moravcsik|first1=Edith M.|editor1-last=Mushira|editor1-first=Eid|editor2-last=Iverson|editor2-first=Gregory|title=Principles and Prediction: The analysis of natural language. Papers in honor of Gerald Sanders (Volume 98 of ''Current Issues in Linguistic Theory'')|date=1993|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-9027276971|pages=73–74|chapter=Why is Syntax Complicated}}</ref> Khmer syntax is very [[analytic language|analytic]]. Relationships between words and phrases are signified primarily by word order supplemented with auxiliary verbs and, particularly in formal and literary registers, grammatical marking particles.<ref name=Haiman /> Grammatical phenomena such as [[Affirmative and negative|negation]] and [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] are marked by particles while [[interrogative]] sentences are marked either by particles or [[interrogative word]]s equivalent to English "wh-words".

A complete Khmer sentence consists of four basic elements—an optional topic, an optional subject, an obligatory predicate, and various adverbials and particles.<ref name=FSI>{{cite book|last1=Ehrman|first1=Madeline Elizabeth|last2=Kem|first2=Sos|last3=Lim|first3=Hak Kheang|title=Contemporary Cambodian: Grammatical Sketch|date=1974|publisher=Foreign Service Institute, US Department of State}}</ref> The topic and subject are [[noun phrase]]s, predicates are [[verb phrase]]s and another noun phrase acting as an [[Object (grammar)|object]] or verbal attribute often follows the predicate.<ref name=FSI />

====Basic constituent order====
When combining these noun and verb phrases into a sentence the order is typically SVO:

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2|glossing2=yes|glossing3=yes
|/kʰɲom ʔaoj ceik muəj cɑmnuən/
|I give banana one bunch[CLF]
|SBJ VERB OBJ {} {}
|'I gave a bunch of bananas.'
}}

When both a [[direct object]] and [[indirect object]] are present without any grammatical markers, the preferred order is SV(DO)(IO). In such a case, if the direct object phrase contains multiple components, the indirect object immediately follows the noun of the direct object phrase and the direct object's modifiers follow the indirect object:

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2|glossing2=yes|glossing3=yes
|/kʰɲom ʔaoj ceik cruːk muəj cɑmnuən/
|I give banana pig one bunch[CLF]
|SBJ VERB DO IO {} {}
|'I gave the pig a bunch of bananas.'<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|207}}
}}

This ordering of objects can be changed and the meaning clarified with the inclusion of particles. The word {{IPA|/dɑl/}}, which normally means "to arrive" or "towards", can be used as a preposition meaning "to":

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
|/kʰɲom ʔaoj ceik muəj cɑmnuən dɑl cruːk/
|I give banana one bunch[CLF] toward pig
|'I gave a bunch of bananas to the pigs.'<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|207}}
}}

Alternatively, the indirect object could precede the direct object if the object-marking preposition {{IPA|/nəw/}} were used:

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
|/kʰɲom ʔaoj cruːk nəw ceik muəj cɑmnuən/
|I give pig OM banana one bunch[CLF]
|'I gave the pig a bunch of bananas.'<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|207}}
}}

However, in spoken discourse OSV is possible when emphasizing the object in a [[topic–comment]]-like structure.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|211}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
|/tuːk muəj kɔŋ pram ʔɑŋ/
|boat one {to sit} five monk[CLF]
|'In a boat sit five monks.'<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|148}}
}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
|/ʋɪʔciə cao luəc mɨn baːn/
|science thief {to steal} NEG COMPL
|'Science, a thief can not steal.'<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|211}}
}}

====Noun phrase====
The noun phrase in Khmer typically has the following structure:<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|50–51}}<ref name=Jacob68 />{{rp|83}}
:{{smallcaps|Noun Phrase}} = ({{smallcaps|Honorific}}) {{smallcaps|Noun}} ({{smallcaps|Adjectival modifiers}}) ({{smallcaps|Numeral}}) ({{smallcaps|Classifier}}) ({{smallcaps|[[Demonstrative]]}})
The elements in parentheses are optional. [[Honorific]]s are a class of words that serve to index the social status of the referent. Honorifics can be kinship terms or personal names, both of which are often used as first and second person pronouns, or specialized words such as {{IPA|/preah/}} ('god') before royal and religious objects.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|155}} The most common demonstratives are {{IPA|/nih/}} ('this, these') and {{IPA|/nuh/}} ('that, those'). The word {{IPA|/ae nuh/}} ('those over there') has a more distal or vague connotation.<ref name=KhDict />

If the noun phrase contains a possessive adjective, it follows the noun and precedes the numeral. If a descriptive attribute co-occurs with a possessive, the possessive construction ({{IPA|/rɔbɑh/}}) is expected.<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|73}}

Some examples of typical Khmer noun phrases are:

{{fs interlinear|lang=km|indent=2|glossing4=yes
| ផ្ទះ ស្កឹមស្កៃ បី បួន ខ្នង នេះ
| /ptĕəh skəm.skaj bəj buən kʰnɑːŋ nih/
| house high three four spine[CLF] these
| NOUN ADJ NUM NUM CLF DEM
| 'these three or four high houses'<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|142}}
}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=km|indent=2|glossing4=yes
| ចេក ទុំ ពីរ ស្និត នេះ
| /ceːk tum piː snət nih/
| banana ripe two bunches[CLF] these
| NOUN ADJ NUM CLF DEM
| these two bunches of ripe bananas
}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=km|indent=2|glossing4=yes
| ពួកម៉ាក ខ្ញុំ ពីរ នាក់ នេះ
| /puəʔmaʔ kʰɲom piː nĕə nih/
| friend I two person[CLF] these
| NOUN POSS NUM CLF DEM
| these two friends of mine
}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=km|indent=2|glossing4=yes
| ពួកម៉ាក តូច របស់ ខ្ញុំ ពីរ នាក់ នេះ
| /puəʔmaʔ touc rɔbɑh kʰɲom piː nĕə nih/
| friend small of I two person[CLF] these
| NOUN ADJ POSS POSS NUM CLF DEM
| these two small friends of mine<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|73}}
}}

The Khmer particle {{IPA|/dɑː/}} marked attributes in Old Khmer noun phrases and is used in formal and literary language to signify that what precedes is the noun and what follows is the attribute. Modern usage may carry the connotation of mild intensity.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|163}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
| /ʋiəl srae dɑː {lʋɨŋ lʋəːj}/
| field paddy ADJ.MARKER vast
| '(very) expansive fields and paddies'
}}

====Verb phrase====
Khmer verbs are completely uninflected, and once a subject or topic has been introduced or is clear from context the noun phrase may be dropped. Thus, the simplest possible sentence in Khmer consists of a single verb. For example, {{IPA|/tɨw/}} 'to go' on its own can mean "I'm going.", "He went.", "They've gone.", "Let's go.", etc.<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|17}} This also results in long strings of verbs such as:

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
| /kʰɲom cɑng tɨw daə leːng/
| I {to want} {to go} {to walk} {to play}
| 'I want to go for a stroll.'<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|187}}
}}

Khmer uses three verbs for what translates into English as the copula. The general copula is {{IPA|/ciə/}}; it is used to convey identity with nominal predicates.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|212}} For locative predicates, the copula is {{IPA|/nɨw/}}.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|212}} The verb {{IPA|/miən/}} is the "existential" copula meaning "there is" or "there exists".<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|208}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
| /piəsaː ciə kaː sɑmdaeŋ cət kumnɨt krŏəp jaːŋ/
| language copula NMLZ {to express} heart thought all kind
| 'Language is the expression of all emotions and ideas'
}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
| /ʋiə nɨw cɪt ʋŏət/
| he copula close temple
| 'He is close to the temple.'
}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
| /miən pʰaen kaː/
| to exist plan
| 'There is a plan.'
}}

[[Negation]] is achieved by putting {{lang|km|មិន}} {{IPA|/mɨn/}} before the verb and the particle {{lang|km|ទេ}} {{IPA|/teː/}} at the end of the sentence or clause. In colloquial speech, verbs can also be negated without the need for a final particle, by placing {{lang|km|ឥត}} {{IPA|/ʔɑt/~/ʔət/}} before them.<ref name=msc />

<blockquote>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|/kʰɲom cɨə/|I {to believe}|'I believe.'}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|/kʰɲom mɨn cɨə teː/|I NEG {to believe} NEG|'I don't believe.'}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|/kʰɲom ʔɑt cɨə/|I NEG {to believe}|'I don't believe.'}}
{{Col-end}}
</blockquote>

Past tense can be conveyed by adverbs, such as "yesterday" or by the use of perfective particles such as {{IPA|/haəj/}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
| /kŏət tɨw msəlmɨɲ/
| he {to go} yesterday
| 'He went yesterday.'
}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
| /kŏət tɨw haəj/
| he {to go} pfv
| 'He left.' or 'He's already gone.'<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|22}}
}}

Different senses of future action can also be expressed by the use of adverbs like "tomorrow" or by the future tense marker {{IPA|/nɨŋ/}}, which is placed immediately before the verb, or both:

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
| /sʔaek kʰɲom nɨŋ tɨw {saːlaː riən}/
| tomorrow I FUT {to go} school
| 'Tomorrow, I will go to school.'<ref name=KhDict />
}}

[[Imperative mood|Imperatives]] are often unmarked.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|240}} For example, in addition to the meanings given above, the "sentence" {{IPA|/tɨw/}} can also mean "Go!". Various words and particles may be added to the verb to soften the command to varying degrees, including to the point of politeness ([[Jussive mood|jussives]]):<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|240}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
|/cou saːk lbɑːŋ kʰluən aeŋ coh/
|IMP try try you REFL IMP
|'Go ahead and try it yourself.'
}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
|/soum tʰʋəː taːm bɑndam kŏət tɨw/
|please do follow instruction he IMP
|'Please follow his instructions.'
}}

Prohibitives take the form "{{IPA|/kom/}} + {{smallcaps|verb}}" and also are often softened by the addition of the particle {{IPA|/ʔəj/}} to the end of the phrase.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|242}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
|/kom nɨw tiː nih ʔəj/
|PROH {to be} place DEM COHORT
|'Don't stay in this place.'
}}

====Questions====
There are three basic types of questions in Khmer.<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|46}} Questions requesting specific information use [[question words]]. [[Yes–no question|Polar questions]] are indicated with interrogative particles, most commonly {{IPA|/teː/}}, a homonym of the negation particle. [[Tag questions]] are indicated with various particles and rising inflection.<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|57}} The SVO word order is generally not [[Inversion (linguistics)|inverted]] for questions.

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
|/loːk tɨw naː/
|you {to go} where
|'Where are you going?'
}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
|/loːk sdap baːn teː/
|you understand modal Q
|'Can you understand?'
}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
|/loːk tɨw psaː haəj rɨː nɨw/
|you {to go} market PRF or yet
|'Have you gone to the store yet?'
}}

In more formal contexts and in polite speech, questions are also marked at their beginning by the particle {{IPA|/taə/}}.

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
| /taə loːk ʔɑɲcəːɲ tɨw naː/
| Q you {to invite} {to go} where
| 'Where are you going, sir?'<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|302}}
}}

====Passive voice====
Khmer does not have a passive voice,<ref name=CamParts /> but there is a construction utilizing the main verb {{IPA|/trəw/}} ("to hit", "to be correct", "to affect") as an auxiliary verb meaning "to be subject to" or "to undergo"—which results in sentences that are translated to English using the passive voice.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|286–288}}

{{interlinear|lang=km|indent=2
| /piː msəlmɨɲ kʰɲom trəw cʰkae kʰam/
| from yesterday I {to undergo} dog {to bite}
| 'Yesterday I was bitten by a dog.'<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|302}}
}}

====Clause syntax====
Complex sentences are formed in Khmer by the addition of one or more [[clause]]s to the main clause. The various types of clauses in Khmer include the [[coordinate clause]], the [[relative clause]] and the [[subordinate clause]]. Word order in clauses is the same for that of the basic sentences described above.<ref name=Haiman /> Coordinate clauses do not necessarily have to be marked; they can simply follow one another. When explicitly marked, they are joined by words similar to English conjunctions such as {{IPA|/nɨŋ/}} ("and") and {{IPA|/haəj/}} ("and then") or by clause-final conjunction-like adverbs {{IPA|/dae/}} and {{IPA|/pʰɑːŋ/}}, both of which can mean "also" or "and also"; disjunction is indicated by {{IPA|/rɨː/}} ("or").<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|217–218}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mori|first1=K.|editor1-last=Soichi|editor1-first=I.|title=Khmer final particles ''phɔɔŋ'' & ''dae''|journal=SEALS XIII Papers from the 13th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 2003|date=2007|pages=139–149–6|url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/mori2007khmer.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/mori2007khmer.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=6 February 2016|publisher=Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University|location=Canberra, ACT}}</ref>

Relative clauses can be introduced by {{IPA|/dael/}} ("that") but, similar to coordinate clauses, often simply follow the main clause. For example, both phrases below can mean "the hospital bed that has wheels".<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|313}}

<blockquote>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{{interlinear|/krɛː pɛːt miən kɑŋ ruɲ/| bed hospital have wheel {to push}| "the hospital bed that has wheels"}}
{{Col-2}}
{{interlinear|/krɛː pɛːt dael miən kɑŋ ruɲ/|bed hospital REL have wheel {to push}|"the hospital bed that has wheels"}}
{{Col-end}}
</blockquote>

Relative clauses are more likely to be introduced with {{IPA|/dael/}} if they do not immediately follow the head noun.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|314}} Khmer subordinate conjunctions always precede a subordinate clause.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|366}} Subordinate conjunctions include words such as {{IPA|/prŭəh/}} ("because"), {{IPA|/hak bəj/}} ("seems as if") and {{IPA|/daəmbəj/}} ("in order to").<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|251}}<ref name=Haiman />