Editing James Cook (section)

===Navigation and science===
[[File:Cooks Karte von Neufundland.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3| A 1775 chart of [[Newfoundland]], made from James Cook's [[Seven Years' War]] surveyings]]
Cook's 12 years sailing around the Pacific Ocean contributed much to Europeans' knowledge of the area. Several islands, such as the Hawaiian group, were encountered for the first time by Europeans, and his more accurate navigational charting of large areas of the Pacific was a major achievement.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5AqNKtDqX0C&pg=PA222 |title=A voyage to the Pacific Ocean |via=Google Books |last1=Cook |first1=James |last2=Clerke |first2=Charles |author-link2=Charles Clerke |last3=Gore |first3=John |author-link3=John Gore (Royal Navy captain) |last4=King |first4=James |author-link4=James King (Royal Navy officer) |publisher=W. and A. Strahan |location=London |volume=2 |access-date=8 July 2014 |date=1784 |archive-date=29 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329031811/http://books.google.com/books?id=O5AqNKtDqX0C&pg=PA222 |url-status=live}}</ref> To create accurate maps, latitude and longitude must be accurately determined. Navigators had been able to work out latitude accurately for centuries by measuring the angle of the sun or a star above the horizon with an instrument such as a [[backstaff]] or [[Quadrant (instrument)|quadrant]]. Longitude was more difficult to measure accurately because it requires precise knowledge of the time difference between points on the surface of the Earth. The Earth turns a full 360 degrees relative to the Sun each day. Thus longitude corresponds to time: 15 degrees every hour, or 1 degree every 4 minutes.{{cn|date=August 2022}} Cook gathered accurate longitude measurements during his first voyage from his navigational skills, with the help of astronomer [[Charles Green (astronomer)|Charles Green]], and by using the newly published [[The Nautical Almanac|''Nautical Almanac'']] tables, via the [[Lunar distance (navigation)|lunar distance]] method – measuring the angular distance from the Moon to either the Sun during daytime or one of eight bright stars during night-time to determine the time at the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]], and comparing that to his local time determined via the altitude of the Sun, Moon, or stars.{{cn|date=February 2024}}

On his second voyage, Cook used the K1 chronometer made by [[Larcum Kendall]], which was the shape of a large pocket watch, {{convert|5|in|cm}} in diameter. It was a copy of the [[Harrison Number Four|H4]] clock made by [[John Harrison]], which proved to be the first to keep accurate time at sea when used on the ship ''Deptford''{{'}}s journey to [[Jamaica]] in 1761–62.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dl.nfsa.gov.au/module/1318/ |title=Captain Cook – Cook's Chronometer |work=English and Media Literacy, Documentaries |via=dl.nfsa.gov.au |year=2011 |access-date=8 August 2011 |archive-date=20 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220205340/http://dl.nfsa.gov.au/module/1318/ |url-status=live}}</ref> He succeeded in circumnavigating the world on his first voyage without losing a single man to [[scurvy]], an unusual accomplishment at the time. He tested several preventive measures, most importantly the frequent replenishment of fresh food.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fernandez-Armesto|2006|p=297}}</ref> For presenting a paper on this aspect of the voyage to the Royal Society he was presented with the [[Copley Medal]] in 1776.<ref>{{harvnb|Stamp|1978|p= 105}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://archive.org/details/philtrans08393052 |title=The Method Taken for Preserving the Health of the Crew of His Majesty's Ship the Resolution during Her Late Voyage Round the World |volume=66 |pages=402–406 |first=Captain James |last=Cook |journal=Philosophical Transactions |year=1767 |access-date=10 April 2019 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1776.0023 |s2cid=186212653}}</ref> Cook became the first European to have extensive contact with various people of the Pacific. He correctly postulated a link among all the Pacific peoples, despite their being separated by great ocean stretches {{Crossreference|(see [[Malayo-Polynesian languages]])}}. Cook theorised that Polynesians originated from Asia, which scientist [[Bryan Sykes]] later verified.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sykes| 2001}}</ref> In New Zealand the coming of Cook is often used to signify the onset of the [[colonisation]].<ref name="collingridge" /><ref name="horwitz">{{Harvnb|Horwitz|2003}}</ref>

[[File:Hodges, Resolution and Adventure in Matavai Bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|[[William Hodges|William Hodges']] painting of [[HMS Resolution (1771)|HMS ''Resolution'']] and [[HMS Adventure (1771)|HMS ''Adventure'']] in [[Matavai Bay]], [[Tahiti]]]]
Cook carried several scientists on his voyages; they made significant observations and discoveries. Two botanists, Joseph Banks and the Swede Daniel Solander, sailed on the first voyage. The two collected over 3,000 plant species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/endeavour-botanical/about2.dsml |title=The Endeavour Botanical Illustrations at the Natural History Museum |publisher=Natural History Museum |year=2011 |access-date=8 August 2011 |archive-date=5 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705011718/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/endeavour-botanical/about2.dsml |url-status=live}}</ref> Banks subsequently strongly promoted British settlement of Australia,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/banks_sir_joseph.shtml |title=Sir Joseph Banks |publisher=BBC |year=2011 |access-date=8 August 2011 |archive-date=25 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125072305/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/banks_sir_joseph.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/solander-daniel-2677 |chapter=Solander, Daniel (1733–1782) |title=Australian Dictionary of Biography |publisher=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University |first=L. A. |last=Gilbert |access-date=22 September 2011 |archive-date=19 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919080043/http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/solander-daniel-2677 |url-status=live}}</ref> leading to the establishment of New South Wales as a penal settlement in 1788. Artists also sailed on Cook's first voyage. [[Sydney Parkinson]] was heavily involved in documenting the botanists' findings, completing 264 drawings before his death near the end of the voyage. They were of immense scientific value to British botanists.<ref name="collingridge" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/endeavour-botanical/people.dsml |title=The Endeavour Botanical Illustrations at the Natural History Museum |publisher=Natural History Museum |year=2011 |access-date=8 August 2011 |archive-date=5 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705011619/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/endeavour-botanical/people.dsml |url-status=live}}</ref> Cook's second expedition included [[William Hodges]], who produced notable landscape paintings of Tahiti, [[Easter Island]], and other locations. Several officers who served under Cook went on to distinctive accomplishments. [[William Bligh]], Cook's [[sailing master]], was given command of {{HMS|Bounty||6}} in 1787 to sail to Tahiti and return with [[breadfruit]]. Bligh became known for the [[Mutiny on the Bounty|mutiny of his crew]], which resulted in his being set adrift in 1789. He later became [[Governor of New South Wales]], where he was the subject of another mutiny—the 1808 [[Rum Rebellion]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheets_william_bligh.htm |title=Biography: William Bligh |work=Royal Naval Museum at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard |year=2011 |access-date=7 August 2011 |archive-date=9 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209022850/http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheets_william_bligh.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> [[George Vancouver]], one of Cook's [[Midshipman|midshipmen]], led a [[Vancouver Expedition|voyage of exploration to the Pacific Coast of North America]] from 1791 to 1794.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/vancouver-george-2755 |chapter=Vancouver, George (1757–1798) |title=Australian Dictionary of Biography |publisher=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University |first=Nan |last=Phillips |access-date=22 September 2011 |archive-date=15 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815203650/http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/vancouver-george-2755 |url-status=live}}</ref> In honour of Vancouver's former commander, his ship was named {{HMS|Discovery|1789|2}}. [[George Dixon (Royal Navy officer)|George Dixon]], who sailed under Cook on his third expedition, later commanded his own.<ref>{{cite DCB |first=Barry M. |last=Gough |title=Dixon, George |volume=4 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/dixon_george_1776_91_4E.html |access-date=7 August 2011}}</ref> 

Cook's contributions to knowledge gained international recognition during his lifetime. In 1779, while the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]] were [[American Revolutionary War|fighting Britain for their independence]], [[Benjamin Franklin]] wrote to captains of colonial warships at sea, recommending that if they came into contact with Cook's vessel, they were to "not consider her an enemy, nor suffer any plunder to be made of the effects contained in her, nor obstruct her immediate return to England by detaining her or sending her into any other part of Europe or to America; but that you treat the said Captain Cook and his people with all civility and kindness ... as common friends to mankind."<ref name="Franklin1837">{{cite book |last=Franklin |first=Benjamin |author-link=Benjamin Franklin |title=The works of Benjamin Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vVc-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA124 |access-date=22 September 2011 |date=1837 |publisher=Tappan, Whittemore, and Mason |pages=123–124 |archive-date=28 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528054931/http://books.google.com/books?id=vVc-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA124 |url-status=live}}</ref>