Editing Intrauterine growth restriction (section)

=== Long-term consequences ===
According to the theory of [[thrifty phenotype]], intrauterine growth restriction triggers [[epigenetic]] responses in the fetus that are otherwise activated in times of chronic food shortage. If the offspring actually develops in an environment where food is readily accessible, it may be more prone to metabolic disorders, such as [[obesity]] and [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type II diabetes]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Fetal and infant origins of adult disease|publisher=British Medical Journal|year=1992|isbn=978-0-7279-0743-1|editor=Barker, D. J. P.|location=London}}</ref>

Infants with IUGR may continue to show signs of abnormal growth throughout childhood. Infants with asymmetric IUGR (head-sparing) typically have more robust [[Compensatory growth (organism)|catch-up postnatal growth]], as compared with infants with symmetric IUGR, who may remain small throughout life. The majority of [[catch-up growth]] occurs in the first 6 months of life, but can continue throughout the first two years. Approximately 10% of infants who are small for gestational age due to IUGR will still have short stature in late childhood.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Karlberg|first1=J.|last2=Albertsson-Wikland|first2=K.|date=1995|title=Growth in Full- Term Small-for-Gestational-Age Infants: From Birth to Final Height|journal=Pediatric Research|language=en|volume=38|issue=5|pages=733–739|doi=10.1203/00006450-199511000-00017|pmid=8552442|issn=1530-0447|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Infants with IUGR are also at elevated risk for neurodevelopmental abnormalities, including motor delay and [[cognitive impairments]]. Low [[IQ]] in adulthood may occur in up to one third of infants born small for gestational age due to IUGR. Infants who fail to display adequate catch-up growth in the first few years of life may exhibit worse outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Løhaugen|first1=Gro C.C.|last2=Østgård|first2=Heidi Furre|last3=Andreassen|first3=Silje|last4=Jacobsen|first4=Geir W.|last5=Vik|first5=Torstein|last6=Brubakk|first6=Ann-Mari|last7=Skranes|first7=Jon|last8=Martinussen|first8=Marit|date=2013|title=Small for Gestational Age and Intrauterine Growth Restriction Decreases Cognitive Function in Young Adults|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.01.060|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=163|issue=2|pages=447–453.e1|doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.01.060|pmid=23453550|issn=0022-3476}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lundgren|first1=Ester Maria|last2=Cnattingius|first2=Sven|last3=Jonsson|first3=Björn|last4=Tuvemo|first4=Torsten|date=2001|title=Intellectual and Psychological Performance in Males Born Small for Gestational Age With and Without Catch-Up Growth|journal=Pediatric Research|language=en|volume=50|issue=1|pages=91–96|doi=10.1203/00006450-200107000-00017|pmid=11420424|issn=1530-0447|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Catch-up growth can alter fat distribution in children diagnosed with IUGR as infants and increase risk of [[metabolic syndrome]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McMillen|first1=I. C.|last2=Muhlhausler|first2=B. S.|last3=Duffield|first3=J. A.|last4=Yuen|first4=B. S. J.|date=2004|title=Prenatal programming of postnatal obesity: fetal nutrition and the regulation of leptin synthesis and secretion before birth|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0029665104000552/type/journal_article|journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society|language=en|volume=63|issue=3|pages=405–412|doi=10.1079/PNS2004370|pmid=15373950|issn=0029-6651|hdl=2440/3152|s2cid=29901966|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Infants with IUGR may be susceptible to long-term dysfunction of several endocrine processes, including [[Growth hormone|growth hormone signaling]], the [[Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis|hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis]], and [[puberty]].<ref>{{Cite journal|author1-link=Simon Langley-Evans|last1=Langley-Evans|first1=Simon C.|last2=Gardner|first2=David S.|last3=Jackson|first3=Alan A.|date=1996-06-01|title=Maternal Protein Restriction Influences the Programming of the Rat Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=126|issue=6|pages=1578–1585|doi=10.1093/jn/126.6.1578|pmid=8648431|issn=0022-3166|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Renal dysfunction]], disrupted lung development, and [[Bone metabolism|impaired bone metabolism]] are also associated with IUGR.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bacchetta|first1=Justine|last2=Harambat|first2=Jérôme|last3=Dubourg|first3=Laurence|last4=Guy|first4=Brigitte|last5=Liutkus|first5=Aurélia|last6=Canterino|first6=Isabelle|last7=Kassaï|first7=Behrouz|last8=Putet|first8=Guy|last9=Cochat|first9=Pierre|date=2009|title=Both extrauterine and intrauterine growth restriction impair renal function in children born very preterm|journal=Kidney International|volume=76|issue=4|pages=445–452|doi=10.1038/ki.2009.201|pmid=19516242|issn=0085-2538|doi-access=free}}</ref>