Editing History of Ukraine (section)

=== Foreign domination ===
{{Main|Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Genoese Gazaria|Principality of Theodoro|Crimean Khanate}}
{{See also|Galicia–Volhynia Wars|Lithuanian Civil War (1432–1438)}}

From the 13th century onwards, parts of Ukraine’s [[Black Sea]] called [[Genoese Gazaria]] came under the influence of the [[Republic of Genoa]], which established fortified trading [[Genoese colonies|colonies]]. These included key settlements such as Caffa (modern [[Feodosia]]), Soldaia (modern [[Sudak]]), and others in today’s [[Odesa Oblast]]. These fortresses, heavily guarded by Genoese garrisons, functioned as hubs for maritime trade and ensured Genoa's control over Black Sea commerce. The Genoese dominance, however, faced challenges from neighboring powers and ended with the Ottoman conquest in 1475.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 February 2018 |title=Генуэзские колонии в Одесской области - Бизнес-портал Измаила |url=http://izm-biz.info/genuezskie-kolonii-v-odesskoj-oblasti/ |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205001115/http://izm-biz.info/genuezskie-kolonii-v-odesskoj-oblasti/ |archive-date=5 February 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=О СОПЕРНИЧЕСТВЕ ВЕНЕЦИИ С ГЕНУЕЮ В XIV-м ВЕКЕ |url=https://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Italy/venice/Veneto-genua/pred.phtml |access-date=19 September 2023 |website=www.vostlit.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 March 2019 |title=Эпиграфические памятники Каффы {{!}} Старый музей |work=Старый музей &#124; Российский исторический музей |url=https://old-museum.org/halls/history_hall_20.htm |access-date=19 September 2023 |language=ru-RU}}</ref>

In 1322, [[Pope John XXII]] established a Catholic [[diocese]] in Caffa (modern-day [[Feodosia]]), marking the only Catholic stronghold within Mongol-controlled territories. It served as a central religious authority from the [[Balkans]] to the capital of the [[Golden Horde]], [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]]. The Genoese settlements were not only economic centers but also a point of cultural and religious interaction between [[Europe]], the [[Mongol Empire]], and the [[Middle East]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khvalkov |first=Evgeny |title=The colonies of Genoa in the Black Sea region: Evolution and transformation |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-351-62306-3 |page=69|location=New York |publisher= Routledge |oclc=994262849}}</ref>

[[File:Lithuanian state in 13-15th centuries.png|thumb|Map of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], at its greatest extent from the 13th to 15th centuries.]]
By the mid-14th century, the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] expanded into the territories of modern [[Ukraine]]. After the decisive [[Battle of the Blue Waters]] against the Golden Horde (1362/63), Lithuania annexed [[Polotsk]], [[Volhynia]], [[Chernihiv]], and [[Kyiv]]. Lithuanian rulers adhered to the principle “We do not disturb the old, nor do we introduce the new”, which allowed local [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] (Ukrainian) traditions, religion, and administration to remain largely intact. The Lithuanian rulers styled themselves as “rulers of Rus’”, integrating Ruthenian traditions and governance into their system. This integration included Ruthenian aristocrats, like the [[Olelkovich|Olelkovich family]], who became influential in the Lithuanian administration. [[Old Church Slavonic]] and [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]] served as primary administrative languages alongside [[Latin]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Millar |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NGKJDAAAQBAJ |title=Authority and Identity: A Sociolinguistic History of Europe before the Modern Age |date=21 July 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-28203-2 |page=184 |language=en}}</ref>

Simultaneously, Poland began asserting influence over western Ukraine. [[Red Ruthenia]], parts of Volhynia, and [[Podolia]] were incorporated into the [[Kingdom of Poland]], and the Polish monarch adopted the title "lord and heir of Ruthenia" ({{Langx|la|Russiae dominus et Heres}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Voloshchuk |first=Myroslav |title=The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: History, Memory, Legacy |series=The Principles of Ancient Rzeczpospolita Formation: The Medieval Ruthenian Dimension |editor-last=Chwalba |editor-first=Andrzej |editor-last2=Zamorski |editor-first2=Krzysztof}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[Kingdom of Hungary]] also maintained influence, particularly over [[Transcarpathia|Zakarpattia]] (Transcarpathia) and parts of [[Bessarabia]]. The [[Hungarian Crown]] controlled these regions, fostering [[Magyarization]] and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] influence while integrating them into the Hungary’s political and economic system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ukrainer.net/hungarians-of-ukraine/|title=Hungarians of Ukraine|date=21 August 2020 }}</ref>

Since the 14th century, Poland and Lithuania had developed a unique and evolving relationship, often defined by dynastic unions, military alliances, and shared geopolitical interests, particularly in countering external threats. These included the aggressive expansion of the [[Teutonic Knights]] in the [[Baltic region]] and the rise of the [[Principality of Moscow]] to the east. The need for mutual support in the face of these common enemies gradually led the two states toward closer cooperation. This relationship reached a decisive turning point with the [[Union of Krewo]] in 1385, which marked the beginning of a new political era. Through the marriage of [[Jadwiga of Poland]], the Queen of Poland, and [[Władysław II Jagiełło]], the Grand Duke of Lithuania, the Lithuanian Grand Duchy was brought under Polish influence. This union was not just a political arrangement but a dynastic consolidation, with Jagiełło converting to [[Christianity]] and agreeing to unite Lithuania with Poland under his rule. This union established the [[Jagiellonian dynasty]], which would go on to rule both Poland and Lithuania for several generations. The creation of this shared monarchy laid the foundation for an increasingly intertwined relationship between the two states, leading to greater cooperation in military, political, and cultural matters.<ref>{{citation |first=Norman |last=Davies |author-link=Norman Davies| title=[[God's Playground]]. A History of Poland. The Origins to 1795 |volume=I | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-925339-5 |edition=Revised}}</ref><ref>{{citation |first=Zenonas |last=Ivinskis |author-link=Zenonas Ivinskis |title=Lietuvos istorija iki Vytauto Didžiojo mirties |year=1978 |location=Rome |publisher=Lietuvių katalikų mokslo akademija |oclc=5075215 |language=lt}}</ref>

In the early 15th century, tensions within the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia]] over the governance of the Rus' lands intensified. These tensions escalated into a power struggle following the death of Grand Duke [[Vytautas]] in 1430. Vytautas had been a powerful and unifying figure, and his passing left a power vacuum that deepened divisions within the Lithuanian elite. Two main contenders for the throne emerged: [[Švitrigaila]], who had the support of the Orthodox Rus' nobility, and [[Sigismund Kęstutaitis]], who represented the Catholic Lithuanian elite.<ref name="NCMH">{{cite book| first=Aleksander |last=Gieysztor |author-link=Aleksander Gieysztor |title=The New Cambridge Medieval History, c.1415–c.1500 |chapter=The kingdom of Poland and the grand duchy of Lithuania, 1370–1506 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-521-38296-3 |volume=7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qzc8OeuSXFMC&pg=RA2-PA732 | pages=734–735}}</ref> In 1432, Sigismund Kęstutaitis declared himself the new [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]]. To consolidate his rule and gain favor with the Rus' lands, he proclaimed the creation of a new political entity—the {{ill|Grand Principality of Rus' (1432—1435)|uk|Велике князівство Руське (1432—1435)|vertical-align=sup}}. This new formation was intended to include several important regions, such as [[Volhynia]], [[Podolia]], [[Siveria]], [[Berestia]], and [[Dnieper Ukraine]], with [[Kyiv]] as its capital. Despite this declaration, Švitrigaila remained formally the head of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and sought to transform the Rus' lands into an independent state under his control. His ambition to sever the ties with the rest of the Grand Duchy sparked a [[Lithuanian Civil War (1432–1438)|civil war]] that raged from 1432 to 1435, plunging Lithuania into internal conflict.<ref name=kiaupa>{{cite book | last1=Kiaupa | first1=Zigmantas |first2=Jūratė |last2=Kiaupienė |first3=Albinas |last3=Kuncevičius | title=The History of Lithuania Before 1795 | orig-year=1995 | edition=English | year=2000 | publisher=Lithuanian Institute of History | location=Vilnius | isbn=9986-810-13-2 | pages=205–211}}</ref>

[[File:Vilkamir battle monument — Помнік бітвы пад Вількамірам.Jpg|thumb|left|Monument at the field of the Battle of Wiłkomierz]]
Švitrigaila's forces, which included early [[Cossack]], sought external support from the [[Teutonic Order]], which had its own interests in weakening both Poland and Lithuania. The Teutonic Order's involvement further complicated the political situation. However, Sigismund Kęstutaitis found strong backing from [[List of Polish monarchs|Polish King]] [[Władysław II Jagiełło]] (Jogaila), as well as from the majority of the Lithuanian nobility. This external support proved pivotal in the conflict, tipping the scales in Sigismund's favor. The turning point in the war came with the [[Battle of Wiłkomierz]] (modern-day [[Ukmergė]], [[Lithuania]]) on 1 September 1435. This battle was one of the largest and most decisive military engagements in [[Eastern Europe]] during the 15th century. Švitrigaila's forces were decisively defeated, suffering a crushing blow that effectively ended the Grand Principality of Rus'. The defeat led to the collapse of Švitrigaila's short-lived state and ensured the continuation of Lithuanian rule over the Rus' lands. With the victory, Sigismund Kęstutaitis solidified his power as Grand Duke, and the Rus' territories were once again integrated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. However, these lands would now be firmly under Lithuanian control, with no 
significant autonomy for the Rus' people. The failure of the Grand Principality of Rus' also marked a significant shift in the governance of the region, as the aspirations of the Rus' nobility for greater independence were suppressed.<ref name=kiaupa/>

Southwestern Crimea saw the emergence of the [[Principality of Theodoro]], also known as Gothia, a Byzantine successor state. Centered in Doros (modern [[Mangup]]), Theodoro was a multi-ethnic entity populated by [[Greeks]], [[Goths]], [[Alans]], and others. Its rulers maintained close ties with the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Empire of Trebizond]]. The principality acted as a buffer between Genoese colonies and the expanding [[Crimean Khanate]]. Despite its strong fortifications, Theodoro was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1475, as the Ottomans sought full dominance over the Black Sea region.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/37968405/Dushenko_A._Byzantine_Weights_Excavated_at_Mangup_Византийские_разновесы_из_раскопок_Мангупа_ Dushenko A. Byzantine Weights Excavated at Mangup]</ref>

The increasing dominance of the Polish nobility over Ukrainian lands in the late 15th century sparked resistance, most notably [[Mukha Rebellion|Mukha’s Rebellion]] in 1490. Led by [[Petro Mukha]] and supported by Moldavian Prince [[Stephen the Great]], the uprising involved early [[Cossacks]], [[Hutsuls]], and [[Romanians|Romanians (Moldavians)]]. Mukha’s forces captured several towns in [[Pokuttya]] and advanced toward [[Lviv]], though they failed to take the city. The rebellion, while ultimately suppressed, revealed growing dissatisfaction among Ukrainians under foreign rule and foreshadowed future uprisings in the region.<ref name="Mukha's Rebellionn">{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CU%5CMukharebellion.htm|title=Mukha rebellion|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com}}</ref>

As the [[Golden Horde]] declined in the 15th century, the [[Crimean Khanate]] emerged as a dominant power in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|southern Ukrainian steppe]]. Centered around the city of [[Bakhchisarai]], the Khanate controlled much of the [[Black Sea]] coastline, including key ports and strategic territories in what is today southern Ukraine. This rise to power marked a significant shift in the region, as the Crimean Khanate not only played a key military and political role but also became a vital player in the economy of the Black Sea and beyond.<ref>Documents of the Crimean khanate from the collection of Huseyn Feyzkhanov / comp. and the transliteration. R. R. Abdujalilov; scientific. edited by I. Mingaleev. – Simferopol: LLC "Konstanta". 2017.  816 p. {{ISBN|978-5-906952-38-7}}</ref><ref>Sagit Faizov. Letters of khans Islam Giray III and Muhammad Giray IV to Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich and king Jan Kazimir, 1654–1658: Crimean Tatar diplomacy in polit. post-Pereyaslav context. time. Moscow: Humanitarii, 2003.  166 p. {{ISBN|5-89221-075-8}}</ref>

[[File:Ottoman empire 1481-1683.jpg|thumb|Map of the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire]]
From the early 16th century to the late 18th century, the Crimean Khanate was deeply involved in the region’s [[Crimean slave trade|slave trade]], which became one of its main economic drivers. The Khanate, often acting as an intermediary between the steppes and the [[Ottoman Empire]], exported an estimated 2 million slaves to [[slavery in the Ottoman Empire]] and [[History of slavery in the Muslim world|the Middle East]] between 1500 and 1700. These slaves, many of whom were captured in raids on neighboring lands, were primarily sold to the Ottoman Empire, where they were used in various sectors, including the military, households, and harems.<ref>Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by {{cite journal |author=Mikhail Kizilov |title=Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate |url=https://www.academia.edu/3706285 |journal=The Journal of Jewish Studies|year=2007|volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=189–210 |doi=10.18647/2730/JJS-2007 }}</ref>

Despite its growing power, the Crimean Khanate remained a [[vassal state]] of the Ottoman Empire throughout much of its history. This relationship provided the Khanate with military support and protection, but also limited its autonomy. The Crimean Khanate’s role as a vassal did not diminish its influence, however, and it continued to exert significant control over the Black Sea region until the late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |author=Brian Glyn Williams |title=The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |work=[[The Jamestown Foundation]] |year=2013 |page=27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021092115/http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2013 |author-link=Brian Glyn Williams }}</ref>