Editing History of Southeast Asia (section)

== Early modern era ==

===European colonisation===
{{main|European colonisation of Southeast Asia}}
[[File:European colonisation of Southeast Asia.png|thumb|right|European colonisation of Southeast Asia in the 1800s.{{when|date=March 2022}}<br />Legend:<br />{{Legend2|#0094ff|[[France]]}}<br />{{Legend2|#ff6a00|[[Netherlands]]}}<br />{{Legend2|#00ff21|[[Portugal]]}}<br />{{Legend2|#ffd800|[[Spain]]}}<br />{{Legend2|#ff006e|[[United Kingdom]]}}]]
The earliest [[European ethnic groups|Europeans]] to have visited Southeast Asia were [[Marco Polo]] during the 13th century in the service of Kublai Khan and [[Niccolò de' Conti]] during the early 15th century. Regular and momentous voyages only began in the 16th century after the arrival of the Portuguese, who actively sought direct and competitive trade. They were usually accompanied by missionaries, who hoped to promote [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://public-library.uk/ebooks/60/81.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://public-library.uk/ebooks/60/81.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title= The Travels of Marco Polo, the Venetian – Book III|publisher=Public Library UK |author=Thomas Wright |access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Niccolo-dei-Conti |title= Niccolò dei Conti|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref>

[[Portugal]] was the first European power to establish a bridgehead on the lucrative [[maritime Southeast Asia]] [[#Maritime trade|trade route]], with the conquest of the [[Sultanate of Malacca]] in 1511. The [[Netherlands]] and [[Spain]] followed and soon superseded Portugal as the main European powers in the region. In 1599, Spain began to colonise the [[History of the Philippines (1521–1898)|Philippines]] via the Mexico-governed [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]], which the Philippines was territory of. In 1619, acting through the [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies#Dutch East India Company (17th – 18th century)|Dutch East India Company]], the Dutch took the city of [[Sunda Kelapa]], renamed it Batavia (now [[Jakarta]]) as a base for trading and expansion into the other parts of [[Java (island)|Java]] and the surrounding territory. In 1641, the Dutch took [[Malacca]] from the Portuguese.<ref group="note">''For fifty or sixty years, the Portuguese enjoyed the exclusive trade to China and Japan. In 1717, and again in 1732, the Chinese government offered to make [[Macao]] the emporium for all foreign trade, and to receive all duties on imports; but, by a strange infatuation, the Portuguese government refused, and its decline is dated from that period.'' (Roberts, 2007 PDF image 173 p. 166)</ref> Economic opportunities attracted [[Overseas Chinese]] to the region in great numbers. In 1775, the [[Lanfang Republic]], possibly the first [[republic]] in the region, was established in [[West Kalimantan]], [[Indonesia]], as a [[tributary state]] of the [[Qing Empire]]; the republic lasted until 1884, when it fell under Dutch occupation as Qing influence waned.<ref group="note">Other experiments in republicanism in adjacent regions were the Japanese [[Republic of Ezo]] (1869) and the [[Republic of Taiwan (1895)]].</ref>
[[File:Retrato de Afonso de Albuquerque (após 1545) - Autor desconhecido.png|thumb|upright|left|Portrait of [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], the first European to [[Capture of Malacca (1511)|conquer a part of Southeast Asia of Malacca]].]]

The British, in the guise of the [[Honourable East India Company|East India Company]] led by [[Josiah Child#Career with the East India Company|Josiah Child]], had little interest or impact in the region, and were effectively expelled following the [[Anglo-Siamese War]]. [[British Empire#Britain's imperial century (1815–1914)|Britain]] later turned their attention to the [[Bay of Bengal]] following the [[Peace of Paris (1783)#Peace with France and Spain|Peace with France and Spain (1783)]]. During the conflicts, Britain had struggled for naval superiority with the French, and the need of good <!-- British -->harbours became evident. [[Penang Island#History|Penang Island]] had been brought to the attention of the [[Company rule in India|Government of India]] by [[Francis Light]]. In 1786, the settlement of [[George Town, Penang|George Town]] was founded at the northeastern tip of [[Penang Island]] by Captain [[Francis Light]], under the administration of [[Sir John Macpherson, 1st Baronet|Sir John Macpherson]]; this marked the beginning of British expansion into the [[Malay Peninsula]].<ref name="Crawfurd2">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PrATTr4zRO0C&pg=PA22|title=Journal of an Embassy from the Governor–general of India to the Courts of Siam and Cochin China|last=Crawfurd|first=John|date=August 2006|publisher=H. Colburn and R. Bentley|edition=2nd|volume=1|location=London|at=image 52, p. 34|chapter=Chapter I – Description of the Settlement.|oclc=03452414|author-link=John Crawfurd|orig-year=First published 1830|access-date=10 February 2014|isbn=9788120612372}}</ref><ref group="note">Company agent John_Crawfurd used the census taken in 1824 for a [[statistical analysis]] of the relative economic prowess of the peoples there, giving special attention to the Chinese: ''The Chinese amount to 8595, and are landowners, field-labourers, mechanics of almost every description, shopkeepers, and general merchants. They are all from the two provinces of Canton and Fo-kien, and three-fourths of them from the latter. About five-sixths of the whole number are unmarried men, in the prime of life : so that, in fact, the Chinese population, in point of effective labour, may be estimated as equivalent to an ordinary population of above 37,000, and, as will afterwards be shown, to a numerical Malay population of more than 80,000!'' (Crawfurd image 48. p.30)</ref>

The British also temporarily possessed [[French and British interregnum in the Dutch East Indies|Dutch territories]] during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]; and [[British occupation of Manila|Spanish areas]] in the [[Seven Years' War]]. In 1819, [[Stamford Raffles]] established [[Singapore]] as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824|Anglo-Dutch treaty]] demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. [[British rule in Burma]] began with the [[first Anglo-Burmese War]] (1824–1826).

Early [[United States]] entry into what was then called the [[East Indies]] (usually in reference to the [[Malay Archipelago]]) was low key. In 1795, a secret voyage for [[black pepper|pepper]] set sail from [[Salem, Massachusetts#Trade with the Pacific and Africa|Salem, Massachusetts]] on an 18-month voyage that returned with a bulk cargo of pepper, the first to be so imported into the country, which sold at the extraordinary profit of seven hundred per cent.<ref name=Trow1905>{{cite book |last=Trow |first=Charles Edward |title=The old shipmasters of Salem |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924028839152/cu31924028839152_djvu.txt |date=1905 |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |location=New York and London |oclc=4669778 |pages=xx–xxiii|chapter=Introduction |quote=When Captain Jonathan Carnes set sail. ...}}</ref> In 1831, the merchantman [[Friendship of Salem#Friendship (1830s)|''Friendship'']] of Salem returned to report the ship had been plundered, and the first officer and two crewmen murdered in Sumatra.

[[File:1916 Dutch East Indies - Art.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dutch Empire|Dutch imperial imagery]] representing the [[Dutch East Indies]] (1916). The text reads "Our most precious jewel."]]
The [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824]] obligated the Dutch to ensure the safety of shipping and overland trade in and around Aceh, who accordingly sent the [[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army]] on the [[Dutch expedition on the west coast of Sumatra|punitive expedition of 1831]]. President [[Andrew Jackson]] also ordered America's [[first Sumatran expedition|first Sumatran punitive expedition]] of 1832, which was followed by a [[second Sumatran expedition|punitive expedition]] in 1838. The ''Friendship'' incident thus afforded the Dutch a reason to take over Ache; and Jackson, to dispatch [[Edmund Roberts (diplomat)|diplomatist Edmund Roberts]],<ref name="Roberts">{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=Edmund (Digitised 12 October 2007)|author-link=Edmund Roberts (diplomat)|title=Embassy to the Eastern Courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat: In the U.S. Sloop-of-War Peacock During the Years 1832–34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aSgPAAAAYAAJ|orig-year=1837|publisher=Harper & Brothers|oclc=12212199|chapter=Introduction|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aSgPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5|quote=Having some years since become acquainted with the commerce of Asia and Eastern Africa, the information produced on my mind a conviction that considerable benefit would result from effecting treaties with some of the native powers bordering on the Indian ocean.|year=1837|isbn=9780608404066}}</ref> who in 1833 secured the [[Siamese-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce|Roberts Treaty with Siam]]. In 1856 negotiations for amendment of this treaty, [[Townsend Harris#Harris Treaty of 1856 with Siam|Townsend Harris]] stated the position of the United States:<blockquote>The United States does not hold any possessions in the East, nor does it desire any. The form of government forbids the holding of colonies.  The United States therefore cannot be an object of jealousy to any Eastern Power. Peaceful commercial relations, which give as well as receive benefits, is what the President wishes to establish with Siam, and such is the object of my mission.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mnh.si.edu/treasures/frame_exhibit_gallery1b_main.htm |title=1b. Harris Treaty of 1856|date=14 March 2013|orig-year=speech delivered 1856 |format=exhibition |work=Royal Gifts from Thailand |publisher=[[National Museum of Natural History]]|access-date=9 February 2014 <!--|quote=[http://www.mnh.si.edu/treasures/frameset_credits.htm Credits]-->}}</ref></blockquote>

From the end of the 1850s onwards, while the attention of the United States shifted to maintaining their union, the pace of European colonisation shifted to a significantly higher gear. This phenomenon, denoted [[New Imperialism]], saw the conquest of nearly all Southeast Asian territories by the colonial powers. The Dutch East India Company and British East India Company were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over the direct administration of the colonies. 
[[File:Bird's Eye View of Iudiad City (Ayutthaya) c1665.jpg|thumb|left|The map of Thai city [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] made by [[Johannes Vingboons]] a Dutch cartographer in 1665. During the European colonialism period in Southeast Asia, only Thailand was spared from the Western rule.]]

Only [[History of Thailand|Thailand]] was spared the experience of foreign rule, though Thailand, too, was greatly affected by the power politics of the Western powers. The [[Monthon]] reforms of the late 19th Century continuing up till around 1910, imposed a Westernised form of government on the country's partially independent cities called [[Mueang]], such that the country could be said to have successfully colonised itself.<ref name="JSS_062_1e_Murdoch">{{cite journal  | last = Murdoch  | first =  John B.  |year= 1974 |title=  The 1901–1902 Holy Man's Rebellion  |journal= [[Journal of the Siam Society]]  |volume= JSS Vol.62.1e   |issue= digital  |page= 38 |publisher= Siam Heritage Trust  |url= http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_062_1e_Murdoch_1901to1902HolyMansRebellion.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_062_1e_Murdoch_1901to1902HolyMansRebellion.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date= 2 April 2013 |quote= .... Prior to the late nineteenth century reforms of King Chulalongkorn, the territory of the Siamese Kingdom was divided into three administrative categories. First were the inner provinces which were in four classes depending on their distance from Bangkok or the importance of their local ruling houses. Second were the outer provinces, which were situated between the inner provinces and further distant tributary states. Finally there were the tributary states which were on the periphery....}}</ref> Western powers did, however, continue to interfere in both internal and external affairs.<ref name="JSS_059.2g">{{cite journal|last=de Mendonha e Cunha |first=Helder|year=1971|title=The 1820 Land Concession to the Portuguese |journal=[[Journal of the Siam Society]]|volume=JSS Vol. 059.2g|issue=digital|publisher=Siam Society|url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_059_2g_Cunha_1820LandConcessionToPortuguese.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_059_2g_Cunha_1820LandConcessionToPortuguese.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=6 February 2014|quote=It was in [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayudhya]] that Portugal had its first official contact with the Kingdom of Siam, in 1511.}}</ref><ref name="JSS_053_1e ">{{cite journal|first=Peter B. |last=Oblas |year=1965 |title=A Very Small Part of World Affairs |journal=[[Journal of the Siam Society]] |volume=JSS Vol.53.1e |issue=digital |publisher=Siam Society |url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_059_2e_Oblas_VerySmallPartOfWorldAffairsSiamAndParisPeaceConference.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_059_2e_Oblas_VerySmallPartOfWorldAffairsSiamAndParisPeaceConference.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=7 September 2013|quote=Negotiations 1909–1917. On the 8th of August 1909, Siam's Adviser in Foreign Affairs presented a proposal to the American Minister in Bangkok. The Adviser, [[Jens Westengard]], desired a revision of the existing extraterritorial arrangement of jurisdictional authority. ...}}</ref>

[[File:Singapore River Stamford Raffles Statue.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Statue of [[Stamford Raffles]] in [[Singapore]]. The port city was the center of British rule in Southeast Asia, and has grown to become one of the world's major trading hubs.]]
By 1913, the British had occupied [[Burma]], [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and the northern [[Borneo]] territories, the [[France|French]] controlled [[Indochina]], the Dutch ruled the [[Netherlands East Indies]] while [[Portugal]] managed to hold on to [[Portuguese Timor]]. In the [[History of the Philippines (1521–1898)|Philippines]], the 1872 [[Cavite Mutiny]] was a precursor to the [[Philippine Revolution]] (1896–1898). When the [[Spanish–American War]] began in Cuba in 1898, Filipino revolutionaries [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declared Philippine independence]] and established the [[First Philippine Republic]] the following year. In the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris of 1898]] that ended the war with Spain, the United States gained the Philippines and other territories; in refusing to recognise the nascent republic, America effectively reversed her position of 1856. This led directly to the [[Philippine–American War]], in which the First Republic was defeated; wars followed with the [[Republic of Zamboanga]], the [[Republic of Negros]] and the [[Tagalog Republic#Sakay|Republic of Katagalugan]], all of which were also defeated.

Colonial rule had had a profound effect on Southeast Asia. While the colonial powers profited much from the region's vast resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent. Commercial agriculture, mining and an export based economy developed rapidly during this period. The introduction Christianity bought by the colonist also have profound effect in the societal change.

Increased labour demand resulted in mass immigration, especially from [[British India]] and [[China]], which brought about massive demographic change. The institutions for a modern [[nation state]] like a state bureaucracy, courts of law, print media and to a smaller extent, modern education, sowed the seeds of the fledgling [[nationalism|nationalist]] movements in the colonial territories. In the inter-war years, these nationalist movements grew and often clashed with the colonial authorities when they demanded [[self-determination]].