Editing History of Qatar (section)

==Al Khalifa and Saudi control (1783–1868)==
{{See also|House of Khalifa|Emirate of Diriyah|Emirate of Nejd}}
[[File:Map of Catura (Qatar) 1794.jpg|thumb|left|A 1794 map depicting ''Catura'' under the jurisdiction of Bahrain.]]
Following Persian aggression towards Zubarah, the [[Utub]] and other Arab tribes drove the Persians from Bahrain in 1783.<ref name="worldatlas"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023575945.0x0000c3|title='Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [839] (994/1782)|publisher=qdl.qa|page=840|access-date=16 January 2015|date=2014-09-30}}</ref> Al Jalahma seceded from the Utub alliance sometime before the Utub annexed Bahrain in 1783 and returned to Zubarah. This left the Al Khalifa tribe in undisputed possession of Bahrain,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023575945.0x0000c4|title='Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [840] (995/1782)|publisher=qdl.qa|page=840|access-date=16 January 2015|date=2014-09-30}}</ref> who then transferred their power base from Zubarah to [[Manama]]. They continued to exert authority over the mainland and paid tribute to the [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] to ward off challenges on Qatar.<ref name="frauke"/> However, Qatar did not develop a centralized authority because the Al Khalifa sheikhs were primarily concerned with the affairs of Bahrain. As a result, Qatar went through many periods of 'transitory sheikhs', including [[Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalhami]].<ref name="crystal"/> By 1790, Zubarah was described as a safe haven for merchants who enjoyed complete protection and no customs duties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023575945.0x000091|title='Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [789] (944/1782)|publisher=qdl.qa|access-date=28 January 2015|date=2014-09-30}}</ref>

[[File:Zubara Fort.jpg|thumb|[[Al Zubara Fort]]]]
The town came under threat by the [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] from 1780 onward due to the intermittent raids launched on the Bani Khalid strongholds in [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Al-Hasa]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Casey|Vine|1991|p=29}}</ref> The Wahhabi thought the population of Zubarah would conspire against their regime with the help of the Bani Khalid. They also believed that its residents practiced teachings contrary to the Wahhabi doctrine and regarded the town as an important gateway to the Persian Gulf.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|p=53}}</ref> Saudi general Sulaiman ibn Ufaysan led a raid against the town in 1787. Five years later, a massive Wahhabi force conquered Al Hasa, forcing many refugees to flee to Zubarah.<ref name="vine1"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.san.beck.org/16-4-Arabia,Iraq.html|title=Arabia, Yemen, and Iraq 1700-1950|publisher=san.beck.org|access-date=18 January 2015}}</ref> Wahhabi forces besieged Zubarah and several neighboring settlements in 1794 as punishment for accommodating asylum seekers.<ref name="embassy"/><ref name="vine1"/> The local chieftains were allowed to continue carrying out administrative tasks but were required to pay a tax.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|p=54}}</ref>

After defeating the Bani Khalid in 1795, the Wahhabi were attacked on two fronts. The Ottomans and [[Egyptian–Wahhabi War|Egyptians]] assaulted the western front, while the Al Khalifa in Bahrain and the Omanis launched an attack against the eastern front.<ref>{{cite book|last=Casey|first=Michael S.|title=The History of Kuwait (The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AwweY4yYSMIC|publisher=Greenwood|pages=37–38|year=2007|isbn=978-0313340734}}</ref><ref name="qdl1">{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023575945.0x0000c7|title='Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [843] (998/1782)|publisher=qdl.qa|access-date=13 January 2014}}</ref> The Wahhabi allied themselves with the Al Jalahmah tribe in Qatar, who engaged the Al Khalifa and Omanis on the eastern frontier.

In 1811, upon being made aware of advancements by the Egyptians on the western frontier, the Wahhabi amir reduced his garrisons in Bahrain and Zubarah to re-position his troops. [[Said bin Sultan]] of Muscat capitalized on this and attacked the Wahhabi garrisons in Bahrain and Zubarah. The fort in Zubarah was set ablaze, and the Al Khalifa were effectively restored to power.<ref name="qdl1"/>

===British involvement===
{{See also|Persian Gulf Residency|General Maritime Treaty of 1820}}
[[File:Arab pearl divers in the Persian Gulf.jpg|thumb|left|235px|Pearl fishing in the Persian Gulf, early 20th century.]]
{{Wikisource|General Treaty for the Cessation of Plunder and Piracy by Land and Sea}}
Britain's desire for secure passage for [[East India Company]] ships led it to impose its own order in the [[Persian Gulf]]. An agreement known as the [[General Maritime Treaty of 1820|General Maritime Treaty]] was signed between the East India Company and the sheikhs of the coastal area (later known as the [[Trucial Coast]]) in 1820. It acknowledged British authority in the Persian Gulf and sought to end piracy and the slave trade. Bahrain became a party to the treaty, and it was assumed that Qatar, as a dependency, was also a party to it.<ref name=cs/>

A report compiled by Major Colebrook in 1820 gives the first descriptions of the major towns in Qatar. All of the coastal cities mentioned in his report were situated near the Persian Gulf pearl banks and had been practicing pearl fishing for millenniums.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|pp=35–37}}</ref> Until the late eighteenth century, all of the principal towns of Qatar, including Al Huwaila, [[Fuwayrit]], [[Al Bidda]] and Doha were situated on the east coast. Doha developed around the largest of these, Al Bidda. The population consisted of nomadic and settled [[Arabs]] and a significant proportion of [[African slave trade|slaves brought from East Africa]].<ref name=cs/> As punishment for piracy committed by the inhabitants of [[Doha]], an [[East India Company]] vessel bombarded the town in 1821. They razed the town, forcing between 300 and 400 natives to flee.<ref name="qdl2">{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023575945.0x000095|title='Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [793] (948/1782)|publisher=qdl.qa|access-date=28 January 2015|date=2014-09-30}}</ref>

A survey carried out by the British in 1825 notes that Qatar did not have a central authority and was governed by local sheikhs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|pp=37}}</ref> Doha was ruled by the [[Al-Buainain]] tribe. In 1828, a member of the Al-Buainain murdered a native of Bahrain, prompting the Bahraini sheikh to imprison the offender. The Al-Buainain tribe revolted, provoking the Al Khalifa to destroy their fort and expel them from Doha. The expulsion of the Al-Buainain granted the Al Khalifa greater jurisdiction over Doha.<ref name="qdl3">{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023575945.0x000096|title='Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [794] (949/1782)|publisher=qdl.qa|access-date=28 January 2015|date=2014-09-30}}</ref>

===Bahraini–Saudi contention===
[[File:Qatar, Zubarah (10), ruined city.JPG|thumb|235px|Ruined city in Zubarah.]]
Desiring to keep surveillance over the proceedings of the [[Wahhabi]]s, Bahrain stationed a government official named [[House of Khalifa|Abdullah bin Ahmad Al-Khalifa]] on the coast of Qatar as early as 1833.<ref name="qdl3"/> Turning against the Bahrainis, he instigated the people of Al Huwailah to revolt against the Al Khalifa and open up a correspondence with the Wahhabis in 1835. Shortly after the revolt, a peace agreement was signed by both parties under the mediation of the son of the [[Said bin Sultan, Sultan of Muscat and Oman|Sultan of Muscat]]. As part of the stipulations, Al Huwailah was demolished and its residents were moved to Bahrain. However, nephews of Abdullah bin Ahmed almost immediately violated the agreement when they incited members of the Al Kuwari tribe to attack Al Huwailah.<ref name="qdl3"/><ref name="qdl4">{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023575945.0x000097|title='Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [795] (950/1782)|publisher=qdl.qa|access-date=28 January 2015|date=2014-09-30}}</ref>

Residents of the peninsula were susceptible to skirmishes between the forces of the sheikh of Bahrain and the Egyptian military commander of [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Al-Hasa]]. At the end of 1839 or the beginning of 1840, the governor of Al-Hasa dispatched troops to lay waste to Qatar following the refusal of the [[Na'im]] tribe of Zubarah to pay the demanded [[tribute]]. The assassination of a governor in [[Hofuf]] prematurely ended the expedition before the forces could reach the country.<ref name="qdl4"/>

In 1847, Abdullah bin Ahmed Al Khalifa and a Qatari chief named [[Isa bin Tarif]] formed a coalition against [[Muhammad bin Khalifa Al Khalifa|Muhammad bin Khalifa]], the ruler of Bahrain. In November, bin Khalifa landed in [[Al Khor]] with 500 troops and military support from the governors of [[Qatif]] and Al-Hasa. The opposition forces numbered 600 troops and were led by bin Tarif. On 17 November, a decisive battle, which came to be known as the [[Fuwayrit#Battle of Fuwayrit|Battle of Fuwayrit]], took place between the coalition forces and the Bahraini forces. The coalition forces were defeated after bin Tarif and eighty of his men were killed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|p=97}}</ref> After he defeated the resistance troop, bin Khalifa demolished [[Al Bidda]] and moved its inhabitants to Bahrain. He sent his brother, Ali bin Khalifa, as an envoy to Al Bidda. However, he did not exercise any administrative powers, and local tribal leaders remained responsible for the internal affairs of Qatar.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|p=98}}</ref>

[[Mohammed bin Thani]] and [[House of Thani|his tribe]] migrated from [[Fuwayrit]] to [[Al Bidda]] in 1848. Prior to this migration, each tribe and settlement had its independent leader, and there was no documented instance of their unification in battle. The concept of a unified land or nation was not present. However, with Mohammed bin Thani's arrival, Qatar began to gain significant economic and political weight.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Al-Ali|first1=Khalid bin Ghanem|url=https://www.moc.gov.qa/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-1.pdf|script-title=ar:الُهَُوِّيَة الَوَطنّيّة الَقَطرّيّة|trans-title=Qatari National Identity|publisher=[[Ministry of Culture (Qatar)]]|language=Arabic|year=2024|page=50}}</ref>

In 1851, Qatar served as a flashpoint for a conflict between [[Faisal bin Turki Al Saud (1785–1865)|Faisal bin Turki]], Imam of the [[Emirate of Najd]], and Muhammad bin Khalifa. Faisal had long sought to gain control of Bahrain and had previously attempted, and failed, to invade the island.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Al-Ali|first1=Khalid bin Ghanem|url=https://www.moc.gov.qa/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-1.pdf|script-title=ar:الُهَُوِّيَة الَوَطنّيّة الَقَطرّيّة|trans-title=Qatari National Identity|publisher=[[Ministry of Culture (Qatar)]]|language=Arabic|year=2024|page=53}}</ref> In May 1851, Faisal launched his third attempt to capture Bahrain, ordering his forces to proceed towards Al Bidda, Qatar, which was intended to be used as a staging area for an invasion of Bahrain. In response, Ali bin Khalifa, the Bahraini representative in Qatar, called on all men of fighting age to defend Al Bidda, as well as sending for help from [[Saeed bin Tahnun Al Nahyan]] of [[Abu Dhabi]]. Mohammed bin Thani served as one of the leaders of the Qatari forces.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|p=65}}</ref>

From 2 June to 4 June 1851, the [[Battle of Mesaimeer]] was fought between Qatari-Bahraini and Wahhabi forces. On the first day, a skirmish of gunfire ensued between the Qatari-Bahraini forces and those of Faisal ibn Turki without any close combat. According to British and oral reports, the Wahhabis were routed by the allied forces on this day. On the second day, Qatari forces, led by Mohammed bin Thani's son [[Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani|Jassim]], engaged Faisal's troops in a fierce battle while the Bahraini forces retreated to their ships, observing from the sea. On the third day, Faisal's forces retreated to their camp at [[Mesaimeer]]. Mohammed bin Thani advised Ali bin Khalifa to make peace with Faisal, fearing a renewed attack once they regrouped. This suggestion was rebuffed by Ali bin Khalifa, who perceived it as betrayal.<ref name="alali60">{{cite book|last1=Al-Ali|first1=Khalid bin Ghanem|url=https://www.moc.gov.qa/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-1.pdf|script-title=ar:الُهَُوِّيَة الَوَطنّيّة الَقَطرّيّة|trans-title=Qatari National Identity|publisher=[[Ministry of Culture (Qatar)]]|language=Arabic|year=2024|page=60}}</ref>

Shortly after the battle ended, Mohammed bin Thani negotiated a separate peace agreement with Faisal in which he agreed to be under Wahhabi governance provided that he remains chief of Al Bidda. Faisal obliged his request, leading to Muhammad bin Khalifa imposing a blockade of Al Bidda after receiving news of this.<ref name="alali60"/> On 8 June, Qatari forces under the leadership of Mohammed bin Thani assumed control of Burj Al-Maah, a watchtower guarding Doha's main water source, close to Al Bidda Fort where the allied forces of Ali bin Khalifa and Saeed bin Tahnoun were stationed. Upon hearing the news, they fled to Bahrain without incident, much to the dismay of Faisal who admonished Mohammed bin Thani for not capturing them.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|p=66}}</ref>

On 25 July, 1851, Saeed bin Tahnun negotiated a treaty between the Bahrainis and Wahhabis, in which the Bahrainis would pay an annual [[zakat]] to Faisal in exchange for his renouncement of any claims to Qatar and return of Al Bidda to the chieftainship of Ali bin Khalifa. Mohammed bin Thani, as party to this agreement, agreed to relinquish his position. This agreement led to Faisal's departure for Al-Hasa on 26 July, 1851. Despite the peace agreement being signed earlier, Al Bidda's blockade was only lifted on 2 August, 1851.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|p=69}}</ref>

===Economic repercussions===

[[File:Mapofqatar1849.jpg|thumb|180px|1849 map of Bahrain and present-day Qatar.]]
In a move which angered Mohammed bin Khalifa, Faisal bin Turki provided a safe haven for Abdullah bin Ahmed's sons in [[Dammam]] in 1852. Consequently, the Bahrainis attempted to drive away residents of Al Bidda and Doha who were suspected of being loyal to the Wahhabi by imposing an economic [[blockade]] on the inhabitants, which prevented them from engaging in [[pearl hunting]]. The blockade continued until the end of the year.<ref name="rahmanb">{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|pp=113–115}}</ref> In February 1853, the Wahhabi began marching from [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Al-Hasa]] to Al Khor. After Bahrain received assurance from Qatar that they would not cooperate with the Wahhabi forces if they crossed their borders, they sent Ali bin Khalifa to the mainland to act as a collaborator with the local resistance. A British-mediated peace agreement was reached between the two parties in 1853.<ref name="rahmanb"/>

Hostilities were provoked again after the Bahraini sheikh, in response to the harboring of Bahraini fugitives in Dammam, stopped paying tribute to the Wahhabi amir in 1859 and proceeded to instigate Qatari tribes to attack its subjects. Following threats made by [[Abdullah bin Faisal Al Saud (1831–1889)|Abdullah bin Faisal Al Saud]] to attack Bahrain, the British navy dispatched a ship off the coast of Dammam to prevent any attacks. The situation escalated in May 1860 when Abdullah threatened to occupy the coast of Qatar until the annual tribute was paid. In May 1861, Bahrain signed a treaty with the British government in which the latter agreed to offer protection and recognize Qatar as a dependent of Bahrain.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|p=118}}</ref> In February 1862, the treaty was ratified by the [[British Raj|Indian]] government.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|pp=115–116}}</ref>

Following the involvement of the British, the sway that the Al Khalifa tribe held over Qatar's affairs began declining. [[Mohammed bin Thani]] was described by [[Gifford Palgrave]] as the acknowledged governor of the Qatar Peninsula in 1863.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|p=116}}</ref> Some of [[Al Wakrah]]'s inhabitants were forced to vacate the town by the Bahraini sheikh in April 1863 due to alleged links with the Wahhabi. The town's chief, Mohammed Bu Kuwara, was taken into custody on a similar charge.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|p=117}}</ref> In 1866, a report by the British revealed that Qatar was paying an annual [[zakat]] of 4,000 German krones to the Wahhabi, in encroachment of the 1861 British treaty. The report also contended that the Al Khalifa were taxing the people of Qatar for the same annual payment.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|p=119}}</ref>

===Qatari–Bahraini War===

{{Main|Qatari–Bahraini War}}
[[File:BritishBahrainAgreement1868.jpg|thumb|230px|An agreement between Britain and Bahrain in September 1868 as an aftermath to the Qatari–Bahraini War.]]
In June 1867, Ali bin Khalifa, the Bahraini representative in Qatar and brother of [[Muhammad bin Khalifa Al Khalifa|Muhammad bin Khalifa]], seized a [[Bedouin]] from [[Al Wakrah]] and deported him to Bahrain. Mohammed bin Thani demanded his release, but Ali bin Khalifa refused. This prompted Mohammed bin Thani to expel him from Al Wakrah. Upon receiving news of this, Muhammad bin Khalifa released the Bedouin prisoner and expressed his desire for renewed peace talks. [[Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani]], the son of Mohammed bin Thani, traveled to Bahrain to negotiate on his behalf. He was imprisoned upon arrival, and a large number of ships and troops were soon sent to punish the people of Al Wakrah and [[Al Bidda]]. [[Abu Dhabi]] joined on Bahrain's behalf due to the conception that Al Wakrah served as a refuge for fugitives from Oman. Later that year, the combined forces sacked the two aforementioned Qatari cities with 2,000 men in what would come to be known as the [[Qatari–Bahraini War]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023462215.0x000024|title='A collection of treaties, engagements and sanads relating to India and neighbouring countries [...] Vol XI containing the treaties, & c., relating to Aden and the south western coast of Arabia, the Arab principalities in the Persian Gulf, Muscat (Oman), Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier Province' [113v] (235/822)|publisher=Qatar Digital Library|access-date=12 January 2015|date=2014-10-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023636219.0x000010|title='File 19/243 IV Zubarah' [8r] (15/322)|publisher=Qatar Digital Library|access-date=12 January 2015|date=2014-03-21}}</ref> A British record later stated: {{Blockquote|"(...) the towns of Doha and Wakrah were, at the end of 1867 temporarily blotted out of existence, the houses being dismantled and the inhabitants deported."}}

In either late 1867<ref name="mitchell1">{{cite journal|last1=Mitchell|first1=Jocelyn Sage|url=https://academic.oup.com/ia/article/97/4/929/6314271|title=Transnational identity and the Gulf crisis: changing narratives of belonging in Qatar|journal=International Affairs|publisher=Oxford Academic|volume=97|issue=4|pages=929–944|date=July 2021|doi=10.1093/ia/iiab013|doi-access=free}}</ref> or June 1868,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icj-cij.org/node/104152|title=Highlighted version of the Memorial of the Government of the State of Qatar|publisher=International Court of Justice|date=30 September 1996|accessdate=18 June 2024}}</ref> the Qataris attempted to launch a [[counterattack]] against the Bahrainis, however, they were defeated in the Battle of Damsah. An account of the battle written in 1933 by [[Charles Umpherston Aitchison|C.U. Aitchison]], under-secretary of the [[British Raj]], is as follows:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023462215.0x000025|title='A collection of treaties, engagements and sanads relating to India and neighbouring countries [...] Vol XI containing the treaties, & c., relating to Aden and the south western coast of Arabia, the Arab principalities in the Persian Gulf, Muscat (Oman), Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier Province' [114r] (236/822)|publisher=Qatar Digital Library|accessdate=18 July 2024}}</ref>
{{quote|
As both the Bahrain and Abu Dhabi Shaikhs were bound by their engagements with the British Government to abstain from aggression of every kind by sea; to appeal to the British Resident as arbitrator; and to afford full redress for all maritime offences which could justly be charged against them or their subjects, steps were taken to exact reparation for these outrages. Before this could be effected the tribes of Qatar retaliated by an attack on Bahrain which proved unsuccessful; but in the naval action which took place a number of vessels were destroyed and great loss of life occurred.
}}

Contemporary sources state the 1868 attack was particularly violent, in some 1,000 were killed and 60 ships were destroyed.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Crystal|first1=Jill|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D8di8GN_hKsC&q=1867|title=Oil and Politics in the Gulf: Rulers and Merchants in Kuwait and Qatar|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=30}}</ref>

The aftermath of the Battle of Damsah saw the Qatari forces execute a strategic withdrawal, prompting a pursuit by Bahraini troops to the settlement of Al Wakrah. At this location, the Qatari contingent mounted a defense, successfully encircling the Bahraini forces and capturing two of their commanders. The engagement concluded with a negotiated exchange of prisoners, following which Jassim bin Mohammed returned to his seat of power in Doha.<ref name="mitchell1"/>

The joint Bahraini-Abu Dhabi incursion and Qatari counterattack prompted the British political agent, Colonel [[Lewis Pelly]], to impose a settlement in 1868. Pelly's mission to Bahrain and Qatar and the peace treaty that resulted were milestones in Qatar's history. It implicitly recognized the distinctness of Qatar from Bahrain and explicitly acknowledged the position of [[Mohammed bin Thani]] as an important representative of the Peninsula's tribes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rahman|2006|pp=123}}</ref>