Editing History of Armenia (section)

==Early modern period==
===Persian Armenia===
{{Main|Armenians in the Persianate}}
{{See also|Khanates of the Caucasus|Melikdoms of Karabakh|Treaty of Turkmenchay}}
[[File:1740 map of Armenia.jpg|thumb|Eastern Armenia, 1740.]]
[[File:1753 Vaugondy Map of Persia, Arabia and Turkey - Geographicus - TurkeyArabiaPersia-vaugondy-1753.jpg|thumb|220px|Robert de Vaugondy Map of Persia, Arabia and Turkey, 1753. Armenia is divided between Persia and Turkey.]]
[[File:John Pinkerton. Map of Persia. 1818.A.jpg|thumb|East Armenia on the Persian Empire map. John Pinkerton, 1818.]]
[[File:ErevanKhanate.gif|thumb|The [[Erivan Khanate]] within the Iranian [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid Empire.]]]]
Due to its strategic significance, the historical Armenian homelands of [[Western Armenia]] and [[Eastern Armenia]] were constantly fought over and passed back and forth between [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid Persia]] and the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. For example, at the height of the [[Ottoman–Persian Wars]], Yerevan changed hands fourteen times between 1513 and 1737. Greater Armenia was annexed in the early 16th century by Shah [[Ismail I]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PxQpmg_JIpwC|title=Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia|access-date=15 December 2014|isbn=9781780230702|last1=Rayfield|first1=Donald|date=15 February 2013|publisher=Reaktion Books }}</ref> Following the [[Peace of Amasya]] of 1555, Western Armenia fell into the neighbouring [[Ottoman Turkey|Ottoman hands]], while Eastern Armenia stayed part of Safavid Iran, until the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dum-Tragut |first=Jasmine |url=https://www.google.am/books/edition/Monastic_Life_in_the_Armenian_Church/yKx9DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Eastern+Armenia+stayed+part+of+Safavid+Iran,+until+the+19th+century.&pg=PA107&printsec=frontcover |title=Monastic Life in the Armenian Church: Glorious Past - Ecumenical Reconsideration |last2=Winkler |first2=Dietmar W. |date=2018 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-91066-0 |pages=107 |language=en}}</ref>

In 1604, [[Shah Abbas I]] pursued a scorched-earth campaign against the Ottomans in the Ararat valley during the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)]]. The old Armenian town of [[Gülüstan, Nakhchivan|Julfa]] in the province of [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic|Nakhichevan]] was taken early in the invasion. From there Abbas' army fanned out across the Araratian plain. The Shah pursued a careful strategy, advancing and retreating as the occasion demanded, determined not to risk his enterprise in a direct confrontation with stronger enemy forces.

While laying siege to [[Kars]], he learned of the approach of a large Ottoman army, commanded by Djghazadé [[Sinan Pasha]]. The order to withdraw was given; but to deny the enemy the potential to resupply themselves from the land, he ordered the wholesale destruction of the Armenian towns and farms on the plain. As part of this the whole population was ordered to accompany the Persian army in its withdrawal. Some 300,000 people were duly herded to the banks of the [[Araxes River]]. Those who attempted to resist the [[Great Surgun|mass deportation]] were killed outright. The Shah had previously ordered the destruction of the only bridge, so people were forced into the waters, where a great many drowned, carried away by the currents, before reaching the opposite bank. This was only the beginning of their ordeal. One eye-witness, Father de Guyan, describes the predicament of the refugees thus:

:''It was not only the winter cold that was causing torture and death to the deportees. The greatest suffering came from hunger. The provisions which the deportees had brought with them were soon consumed&nbsp;... The children were crying for food or milk, none of which existed, because the women's breasts had dried up from hunger&nbsp;... Many women, hungry and exhausted, would leave their famished children on the roadside, and continue their tortuous journey. Some would go to nearby forests in search of something to eat. Usually they would not come back. Often those who died, served as food for the living.''

Unable to maintain his army on the desolate plain, Sinan Pasha was forced to winter in [[Van, Turkey|Van]]. Armies sent in pursuit of the Shah in 1605 were defeated, and by 1606 Abbas had regained all of the territory lost to the Turks earlier in his reign. The scorched-earth tactic had worked, though at a terrible cost to the Armenian people. Of the 300,000 deported it is calculated that less than half survived the march to [[Isfahan]]. In the conquered territories Abbas established the [[Erivan Khanate]], a Muslim principality under the dominion of the [[Safavid Empire]]. Armenians formed less than 20% of its population<ref name="hewsen">{{cite book | last = Hewsen | first = Robert H. | title = Armenia: a historical atlas | year = 2001 | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn = 0-226-33228-4 | pages = 116 }}</ref> as a result of [[Abbas I of Persia|Shah Abbas I]]'s deportation of many of the Armenian population from the Ararat valley and the surrounding region in 1605.<ref name="haxthausen">{{cite book|last=Haxthausen|author-link=August von Haxthausen|first=Baron August von|translator=John Edward Taylor|others=Introduction by Pietro A. Shakarian. Foreword by [[Dominic Lieven]]|title=Transcaucasia and the Tribes of the Caucasus|publisher=[[Gomidas Institute]]|place=London|date=2016|orig-year=1854–55|page=176|isbn=9781909382312}}</ref>

An often-used policy by the Persians was the appointment of Turks as local rulers as so-called ''khans'' of their various ''[[Khanates of the Caucasus|khanates]]''. These were counted as subordinate to the [[Persian Empire]]. Examples include: the [[Khanate of Erevan]], [[Khanate of Nakhichevan]] and the [[Karabakh Khanate]].

Even though Western Armenia had already once been conquered by the Ottomans following the Peace of Amasya, Greater Armenia was eventually decisively divided between the vying rivals, the Ottomans and the Safavids, in the first half of the 17th century following the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639)]] and the resulting [[Treaty of Zuhab]] under which Eastern Armenia remained under Persian rule, and Western Armenia remained under Ottoman rule.<ref name="eastern" />

Persia continued to rule Eastern Armenia, which included all of the modern-day Armenian Republic, until the first half of the 19th century. By the late 18th century, Imperial Russia had started to encroach to the south into the land of its neighbours; [[Qajar Iran]] and Ottoman Turkey. In 1804, [[Pavel Tsitsianov]] [[Battle of Ganja (1804)|invaded]] the Iranian town of [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]] and massacred many of its inhabitants while making the rest flee deeper within the borders of Qajar Iran. This was a declaration of war and regarded as an invasion of Iranian territory.{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|p=332}} It was the beginning of the [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)]]. The following years were devastating for the Iranian towns in the Caucasus as well as the inhabitants of the region, as well as for the Persian army. The war eventually ended in 1813 with a Russian victory after their successful [[storming of Lankaran]] in early 1813. The [[Treaty of Gulistan]] that was signed in the same year forced Qajar Iran to irrevocably cede significant amounts of its [[Caucasus|Caucasian]] territories to Russia, comprising modern-day [[Dagestan]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and most of what is today the [[Republic of Azerbaijan]].<ref>Timothy C. Dowling [https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ ''Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond''] pp 728–729 ABC-CLIO, 2 December 2014. {{ISBN|978-1598849486}}</ref><ref name="Mikaberidze p 351">[[Alexander Mikaberidze|Mikaberidze, Alexander]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=jBBYD2J2oE4C ''Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia 2 volumes: A Historical Encyclopedia''], ABC-CLIO, 22 July 2011; {{ISBN|978-1598843378}}, p. 351<!-- ISSN/ISBN needed --></ref> [[Karabakh Khanate|Karabakh]] was also ceded to Russia by Persia.<ref name="Mikaberidze p 351" />

The Persians were severely dissatisfied with the outcome of the war which led to the ceding of so much Persian territory to the Russians.  As a result,{{sfn|Fisher|Avery|Hambly|Melville|1991|pp=329–330}} the next war between Russia and Persia was inevitable, namely the [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)]]. However, this war ended even more disastrously, as the Russians not only occupied as far as [[Tabriz]], the ensuing treaty that followed, namely the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] of 1828, forced it to irrevocably cede its last remaining territories in the [[Caucasus]], comprising all of modern-day Armenia, [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic|Nakhchivan]] and [[Iğdır Province]].<ref>Timothy C. Dowling, [https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ ''Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond''], pp 729–30, ABC-CLIO, 2 December 2014; {{ISBN|978-1598849486}}.</ref>

By 1828, Persia had lost Eastern Armenia, which included the territory of the modern-day Armenian Republic after centuries of rule. From 1828 until 1991, Eastern Armenia would enter [[Russian Armenia|a Russian dominated chapter]]. Following Russia's conquest of all of [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar Iran's]] Caucasian territories, many Armenian families were encouraged to settle in the newly conquered Russian territories.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Azarian |first=Haroot |date=2018 |title=Armenians in Iran: A Brief History |url=https://www.odvv.org/resources/attachment/1565084694_1134e13344c64d1154a3fa6443dba054.pdf |access-date=April 22, 2024 |website=www.odvv.org}}, p.29.</ref>

===Ottoman Armenia===
{{one source|section|date=December 2015}}
{{Main|Ottoman Armenia}}
{{See also|Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople}}
[[File:Constantinople(1878)-Armenian patriarch.png|thumb|right|Patriarch [[Harutyun I]] [[List of Armenian Patriarchs of Constantinople|of Constantinople]]]]
[[File:Moll, Herman. Turkey in Asia; or Asia Minor &c. 1736.jpg|thumb|left|Western Armenia the first half of the 18th century – Herman Moll's map,1736]]
[[File:1818 Pinkerton Map of Turkey in Asia, Iraq, Syria, and Palestine - Geographicus - TurkeyAsia-pinkerton-1818.jpg|thumb|left|Western Armenia on the Ottoman Empire map – John Pinkerton, 1818]]
[[File:Turkey in Asia, 1903.jpg|thumb|right|6 Armenian provinces of [[Western Armenia]] – Patten, William and J.E. Homas, Turkey in Asia (with 6 Armenian provinces of Western Armenia), 1903]]

[[Mehmed II]] conquered [[Constantinople]] from the Byzantines in 1453 and made it the Ottoman Empire's capital. Mehmed and his successors used the religious systems of their subject nationalities as a method of population control, and so Ottoman Sultans invited an Armenian archbishop to establish the [[Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople]]. The Armenians of Constantinople grew in numbers, and became respected, if not full, members of Ottoman society.

The Ottoman Empire ruled in accordance to [[Sharia|Islamic law]]. As such, the [[People of the Book]] (the [[Christianity|Christians]] and the [[Judaism|Jews]]) had to pay an extra tax to fulfil their status as [[dhimmi]] and in return were guaranteed religious autonomy. While the Armenians of [[Istanbul|Constantinople]] benefited from the [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Sultan]]'s support and grew to be a prospering community, the same could not be said about the ones inhabiting [[Armenian Highland|historic Armenia]].

During times of crisis the ones in the remote regions of mountainous [[eastern Anatolia]] were mistreated by local [[Kurds|Kurdish]] chiefs and feudal lords. They often also had to suffer (alongside the settled Muslim population) raids by nomadic Kurdish tribes.<ref>McCarthy, Justin. ''The Ottoman Peoples and the end of Empire''; London, 1981; p. 63<!-- publishing info; ISSN/ISBN needed --></ref> Armenians, like the other Ottoman Christians (though not to the same extent), had to transfer some of their healthy male children to the Sultan's government due to the [[devşirme]] policies in place. The boys were then forced to convert to Islam (by threat of death otherwise) and educated to be fierce warriors in times of war, as well as [[Bey]]s, [[Pasha]]s and even [[Grand Vizier]]s in times of peace.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

The Armenian national liberation movement was the Armenian effort to free the [[Armenian Highland|historic Armenian homeland]] of eastern [[Anatolia]] and [[Transcaucasus]] from [[Russian Empire|Russian]] and Ottoman domination and re-establish the independent Armenian state. The national liberation movement of the [[History of the Balkans#National Awakening in the Balkans|Balkan peoples]] and the immediate involvement of the European powers in the Eastern question had a powerful effect on the development of the national liberation ideology movement among the [[Armenians in the Ottoman Empire|Armenians of the Ottoman Empire]].<ref>Arman J. Kirakossian. ''British Diplomacy and the Armenian Question: From the 1830s to 1914'', p. 58<!-- publisher; ISSN/ISBN needed --></ref>

The Armenian national movement, besides its individual heroes, was an organized activity represented around three parties of Armenian people, [[Social Democrat Hunchakian Party]], [[Armenakan Party|Armenakan]] and [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]], which ARF was the largest and most influential among the three. Those Armenians who did not support national liberation aspirations or who were neutral were called ''chezoks''. In 1839, the situation of the Ottoman Armenians slightly improved after [[Abdul Mejid I]] carried out [[Tanzimat]] reforms in its territories. However, later Sultans, such as [[Abdul Hamid II]] stopped the reforms and carried out massacres, now known as the [[Hamidian massacres]] of 1895–96 leading to a failed Armenian attempt to [[Yıldız assassination attempt|assassinate]] him.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Hamidian massacres {{!}} Armenian Genocide, Ottoman Empire & Sultan Abdul Hamid II {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hamidian-massacres |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

===Russian Armenia===
{{Main|Russian Armenia}}
[[File:Armenian Oblast, 1828-1840.png|thumb|Map of the [[Armenian Oblast]] within the [[Russian Empire]]]]

In the aftermath of the [[Russo-Persian War, 1826–1828]], the parts of historic Armenia (also known as [[Eastern Armenia]]) under Persian control, centering on [[Yerevan]] and [[Lake Sevan]], were incorporated into [[Russia]] after Qajar Persia's forced ceding in 1828 per the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]].<ref name="https">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728|title=Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond ...|access-date=22 December 2014|isbn=9781598849486|last1=Dowling|first1=Timothy C.|date=2 December 2014|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> Under Russian rule, the area corresponding approximately to modern-day Armenian territory was called "Province of Yerevan". The Armenian subjects of the [[Russian Empire]] lived in relative safety, compared to their Ottoman kin, albeit clashes with [[Azeris|Tatars]] and [[Kurds]] were frequent in the early 20th century.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} Even though Russian Armenians benefited from the advanced Russian culture, and greater access to European thought, and broader economic initiative, they were denied equal educational and administrative opportunities like many other racial and religious minorities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hovannisian|first=Richard G|date=1971|title=Russian Armenia. A Century of Tsarist Rule|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41044266|journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas|volume=19|issue=1|pages=31–48|jstor=41044266}}</ref>

The Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828 had further stipulated the rights of the Russian tsar to resettle [[Iranian Armenians|Persian Armenians]] within the newly conquered Caucasus region, which had been taken over from [[Iran]]. Following the resettlement of Persian Armenians alone in the newly conquered Russian territories, significant demographic shifts were bound to take place. The Armenian-American historian [[George Bournoutian]] gives a summary of the ethnic make-up after those events:<ref>{{cite book|title=Eastern Armenia in the Last Decades of Persian Rule, 1807–1828|last=Bournoutian|first=George A.|year=1982|publisher=Undena Publications|location=Malibu|pages=xxii, 165}}<!-- ISSN/ISBN needed --></ref>

{{cquote|In the first quarter of the 19th century the Khanate of Erevan included most of Eastern Armenia and covered an area of approximately {{convert|7000|sqmi|km2|disp=sqbr}}. The land was mountainous and dry, the population of about 100,000 was roughly 80 percent Muslim (Persian, Azeri, Kurdish) and 20 percent Christian (Armenian).}}

After the incorporation of the [[Erivan Khanate]] into the Russian Empire, Muslim majority of the area gradually changed, at first the Armenians who were left captive were encouraged to return.<ref name="William Bayne Fisher p. 339">The Cambridge History of Iran by William Bayne Fisher, Peter Avery, Ilya Gershevitch, Gavin Hambly, Charles Melville, Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 339<!-- publishing info, ISSN/ISBN needed --></ref> As a result of which an estimated 57,000 Armenian refugees from Persia returned to the territory of the Erivan Khanate after 1828, while about 35,000 Muslims (Persians, Turkic groups, Kurds, Lezgis, etc.) out of a total population of over 100,000 left the region.<ref name="potier">{{cite book|title=Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal|last=Potier|first=Tim|year=2001|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-411-1477-7|page=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JL9N4F1SgyYC&pg=PA2}}</ref>