Editing Hedonism (section)

== In various fields ==
[[Positive psychology]] studies how to cultivate happiness and promote optimal human functioning. Unlike traditional [[psychology]], which often focuses on [[psychopathology]], positive psychology emphasizes that optimal functioning goes beyond merely the absence of [[mental illness]]. On the individual level, it investigates experiences of pleasure and pain and the role of [[character trait]]s. On the societal level, it examines how [[social institution]]s impact human well-being.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Vittersø|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=snys_ihoEigC&pg=PA473 473–474]}} | {{harvnb|Kaczmarek|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=d7mpEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1054 1050–1055]}} | {{harvnb|Colman|2015|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199657681.001.0001/acref-9780199657681-e-9229 Positive Psychology]}} | {{harvnb|Seligman|Csikszentmihalyi|2000|pp=5–6}} }}</ref>

Hedonic psychology or hedonics{{efn|In a different sense, the term ''hedonics'' is also used in ethics for the study of the relation between pleasure and duty.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merriam-Webster|2024}} | {{harvnb|HarperCollins|2024}} }}</ref>}} is one of the main pillars of positive psychology by studying pleasurable and unpleasurable experiences. It investigates and compares different states of consciousness associated with pleasure and pain, ranging from joy and satisfaction to boredom and sorrow. It also examines the role or [[biological function]] of these states, such as signaling to individuals what to approach and avoid, and their purpose as reward and punishment to [[Reinforcement|reinforce]] or discourage future behavioral patterns. Additionally, hedonic psychology explores the circumstances that evoke these experiences, on both the biological and social levels.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kahneman|Diener|Schwarz|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-wIXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix]}} | {{harvnb|Vittersø|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=snys_ihoEigC&pg=PA431 431, 473–474]}} | {{harvnb|Kaczmarek|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=d7mpEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1054 1054–1055]}} }}</ref> It includes questions about psychological obstacles to pleasure, such as [[anhedonia]], which is a reduced ability to experience pleasure, and [[hedonophobia]], which is a fear or aversion to pleasure.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|American Psychological Association|2018}} | {{harvnb|Doctor|Kahn|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E2imSyZZDh0C&pg=PA270 270]}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=76vPu_G2UkgC&pg=PA449 449]}} }}</ref> Positive psychology in general and hedonic psychology in particular are relevant to hedonism by providing a scientific understanding of the experiences of pleasure and pain and the processes impacting them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Vittersø|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=snys_ihoEigC&pg=PA431 431, 473–474]}} | {{harvnb|Kahneman|Diener|Schwarz|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-wIXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix]}} }}</ref>

In the field of [[economics]], [[welfare economics]] examines how economic activities affect [[social welfare]]. It is often understood as a form of [[Positive and normative economics|normative economics]] that uses considerations of welfare to evaluate economic processes and policies. Hedonist approaches to welfare economics state that pleasure is the main criterion of this evaluation, meaning that economic activities should aim to promote societal happiness.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hausman|2010|pp=321–322, 324–325, 327}} | {{harvnb|Mishan|2008|loc=§ Lead section}} }}</ref> The [[Happiness economics|economics of happiness]] is a closely related field studying the relation between economic phenomena, such as wealth, and individual happiness.<ref>{{harvnb|Graham|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QdwUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6–8]}}</ref> Economists also employ [[hedonic regression]], a method used to estimate the value of [[Commodity|commodities]] based on their [[utility]] or effect on the owner's pleasure.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goodstein|Polasky|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DPhcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 78]}} | {{harvnb|Hackett|Dissanayake|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t1DfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 162]}} }}</ref>

[[File:Peter Singer no Fronteiras do Pensamento Porto Alegre (9619604688) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Photo of Peter Singer|[[Peter Singer]] has applied [[utilitarianism]] to problems of [[animal ethics]].<ref>{{harvnb|Miligan|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TEjLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 26]}}</ref>]]

[[Animal ethics]] is the branch of [[ethics]] studying human behavior towards other animals. Hedonism is an influential position in this field as a theory about [[animal welfare]]. It emphasizes that humans have the responsibility to consider the impact of their actions on how animals feel to minimize harm done to them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wilson|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3c. Animal Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Robbins|Franks|von Keyserlingk|2018|loc=§ Abstract, § Introduction}} }}</ref> Some quantitative hedonists suggest that there is no qualitative difference between the pleasure and pain experienced by humans and other animals. As a result of this view, [[Morality|moral]] considerations about promoting the happiness of others apply to all [[Sentience|sentient]] animals. This position is modified by some qualitative hedonists, who argue that human experiences carry more weight because they include higher forms of pleasure and pain.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lazari-Radek|2024|pp=24–25}} | {{harvnb|Lazari-Radek|Singer|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GGZeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72–73, 265–267]}} | {{harvnb|Weijers|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wvGrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 28]}} | {{harvnb|Tilley|2012|loc=§ III. Axiological Hedonism}} }}</ref>

While many religious traditions are critical of hedonism, some have embraced it or certain aspects of it, such as [[Christian hedonism]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Piper|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MI1RdmBbvekC&pg=PA31 31]}} | {{harvnb|Chryssides|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5KrAa6e_VN4C&pg=PA762 762–763]}} }}</ref> Elements of hedonism are also found in various forms of [[popular culture]], such as [[consumerism]], the [[entertainment industry]], and the enduring influences of the [[sexual revolution]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Danesi|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=61mBDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 142]}} | {{harvnb|Blue|2013|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1Ux1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48 § Hedonism—The Sin of Pleasure]}} | {{harvnb|Boden|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3EGEDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}} | {{harvnb|Smith|1990|p=416}} }}</ref>